1. Psychology of Music Learning Miksza Behaviorism

2. Part I Classical Conditioning –Assumptions –Method –Phenomena –Counter conditioning –Figures There is more detail in this section of the outline than is presented in Driscoll… it’s good information – but focus on Part II for the purposes of this class…

3. Behaviorist Assumptions John Watson (Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, 1913) –Introduced the term Behaviorism –Advocated for objective, scientific, observable forms of inquiry Equipotentiality Learning best studied through stimuli and responses Internal processes largely excluded (radical perspective) Learning=change in behavior Empiricist/blank slate Learning greatly effected by the environment Parsimony

4. Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov (Conditioned Reflexes, 1927) –Basic Form of 3 Steps Neutral stimulus – No response Neutral stimulus/unconditioned stimulus paired – unconditioned response Conditioned stimulus – conditioned responses Signal learning Behavior Elicited – not necessarily conscious response

5. Watson’s take… Law of frequency –“The more frequently a stimulus and response occur in association with each other, the stronger the S-R habit will become (Ormrod, p. 43).” Law of recency –“The response that has most recently occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most likely to be associated with that stimulus (Ormrod, p. 43).” Extreme position regarding nature/nurture issues…

6. Classical Conditioning Phenomena Extinction –Behavior goes away Spontaneous Recovery –Behavior comes back Stimulus Generalization –Response occurs when presented with ‘similar’ stimuli Stimulus Discrimination –When an individual learns not to generalize a response to ‘similar’ stimuli Higher-order Conditioning –Another ‘layer’ of pairing stimuli and responses…

7. More Recent Developments in Classical Conditioning Contingency/contiguity vs. random or coincidence-like pairing Salience of the conditioned stimulus –Some stimulus/response pairings make more sense than others Cognition a part of the process –S/R relationships among mental representations –Tolerance to drugs

8. Altering Conditioned Behaviors Difficult to do… involuntary Extinction –Problems: unpredictable speed, avoidance, spontaneous recovery Counter-conditioning (better than extinction) –New response – must be incompatible with old response –Must identify a salient stimulus –Gradually introduced new stimulus in conjunction with old stimulus Threshold method –Present a stimulus faintly at first and then gradually increase the strength Systematic desensitization –An example of counter-conditioning that is often applied to anxiety problems Exhaustion –The stimulus is presented continuously until the individual can no longer respond in a habitual way

9. Other key figures… Edwin Guthrie –A stimulus and response relationship can form at full strength in just one trial Clark Hull –Intervening or organismic variables are also important to consider –A departure from radical behaviorist views in that internal elements were seen as important… –‘Drive’ a major factor – laid ground work for early theories of motivation

10. Part II Operant Conditioning –Groundwork –True theory –Types of reinforcers –Reinforcement vs. Punishment –Conditions… –Phenomena –Eliminating undesirable behavior –Limitations of reinforcement

11. Groundwork for Operant Conditioning Edward Thorndike –Law of Effect Responses followed by satisfaction are strengthened Responses followed by discomfort are weakened Originally focused on rewards and punishments Later revised without emphasis on punishment –Emphasized the importance of consequences in the learning process… (Ormrod, p. 50)

12. Operant Conditioning Proper B. F. Skinner –Shifted emphasis from strength of S-R connections… …to… …simply the strengthening of responses A flip-flop of S-R to R-S (…or R-C) –“A response that is followed by a reinforcer is strengthened and is therefore more likely to occur again.” –“Reinforcer – a stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response it follows (Ormrod, p. 52).” –Rather than ‘elicit’ the focus is now on the individual ‘emitting’ a behavior, or ‘operating’ on their environment

13. Types of Reinforcers Primary –Those that satisfy an inherent biological need or desire Secondary/Conditioned –Those that satisfy all other needs or desires –Material –Social –Activity –Intrinsic

14. Positive/Negative Reinforcers vs. Punishment Reinforcer – response increases Punishment – response decreases Positive reinforcer – present something positive to increase certain response Negative reinforcer – take something away to increase a certain response Punishment – present or take something away to decrease a certain response (see Driscoll, Figure 2.2, p. 37)

15. Conditions for operant conditioning… Reinforcer occurs after response… Reinforcer comes immediately… Reinforcer is contingent on the desired response... Magnitude and appeal of reinforcer affects responses learned… Consistency of reinforcement is important…

16. Operant Conditioning Phenomena Baseline –Behavior in absence of reinforcer Terminal behavior –Desired response at end of reinforcement program Extinction –When response is no longer followed by a reinforcer and the behavior ceases Superstition –When reinforcement is random and not contingent on behavior Shaping –Reinforcing successive approximations of a task Chaining –Reinforcing one response at a time, and then a sequence of responses – simple to complex behaviors

17. Operant Conditioning Phenomena Continued… Stimulus generalization –Once a response/reinforcer connection is learned an individual will likely respond similarly to similar reinforcers Stimulus discrimination –When an individual learns under what circumstances a response will or will not be reinforced… Stimulus control –Cueing/Prompting Verbal or non-verbal cues that indicate a desired response (flicking lights, conducting, etc.) –Setting events Designing an environment that is conducive to the type of response desired… Learned Helplessness –The passive acceptance of events seemingly beyond one’s control

18. Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio –Reinforcements contingent on a certain number of behaviors Interval –Reinforcement contingent on the passage of time Fixed –Occurrence of reinforcement is consistent Variable –Occurrence of reinforcement is not consistent (See Driscoll, Figure 2.5 and 2.6, p. 50 and 51)

19. Eliminating Undesirable Behavior… Extinguishing –A particular response is no longer reinforced Non-contingent consequences –May be beneficial for those who act out for attention Reinforcing other and/or incompatible behaviors –Differential reinforcement Contingency contracts Personalized system of instruction –IEPS and diverse learners CAI – Computer Assisted Instruction

20. Limitations of Reinforcement The reinforcer isn’t salient… Lack of consistency in reinforcement… Cost/benefit analysis results in an imbalance… Shaping a desired behavior too quickly… Extrinsic reinforcer may undermine intrinsic interest…

21. Basic educational implications related to Behaviorist principles… Practice Positive learning environment Methods for breaking bad habits Assessing learning by looking for behavioral changes

22. Part III Applied Behavioral Analysis (ABA) –Essential components

23. ABA Assumptions and Pseudonyms… Assumptions –Behavioral issues are related to past and present environmental circumstances… –Operant Conditioning concepts Reinforcement, extinction, shaping, chaining, stimulus control, reinforcing incompatible behaviors, etc… –A=Baseline condition –B=Treatment/Intervention –A=Return to Baseline Pseudonyms and similar processes –Behavior Management… –Behavior modification… –Behavior therapy… –Contingency management...

24. Components of ABA Present and desired behavior are specified in observable, measurable terms (Driscoll step 1) Behavior is measured before and during intervention Salient environmental/Intervention conditions and/or reinforcers are identified (Driscoll step 2) A specific intervention/treatment plan is developed – with the individual when appropriate… (Driscoll step 3) Treatment monitored for effectiveness and modified along if necessary… (similar to Driscoll step 4 and 5) Efforts made to show how change in behavior can be generalized to other situations… Treatment is phased out eventually…