1. Weathering – the physical breakdown (disintegration) and chemical alteration (decomposition) of rock at or near Earth’s surface Erosion – the physical removal of material by agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity Weathering and Erosion Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

2. insoluable

3. basalt (Mg,Fe) 2 SiO 4 (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 pyroxine H 4 SiO 4 in solution Mg 2+ in solution Fe (III) hydroxide (insoluble, rust) CaAl 2 Si 2 O 8 Ca-feldspar and NaAlSi 3 O 8 Na-Feldspar Ca +2 in solution Na +1 in solution Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 (insoluble, “clay”)

4. granite SiO 2 quartz SiO 2 (insoluble, “sand”) CaAl 2 Si 2 O 8 Ca-feldspar; NaAlSi 3 O 8 Na-Feldspar KAlSi 3 O 8 K-Feldspar Ca +2, Na +1, K +1 in solution Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 (insoluble, “clay”) (Ca,Na) 2 (Mg,Fe,Al) 5 (Al,Si) 8 O 22 (OH) 2 amphibole (and also mica) Mg +2, Ca +2, Na +1 in solution Al 2 Si 2 O 5 (OH) 4 (insoluble, “clay”) Fe (III) hydroxide (insoluble, rust)

5. Climate and Weathering

6. Hot and wet favors chemical weathering

7. Cold and snowy favors mechanial weathering

8. Differential Weathering and Erosion creates topography Slowly weathered and eroded - high (Morningside Heights, Palisades, Ramapo Mountains) Quickly weathered and eroded - low (sediments beneath Hudson River and west of Palisades)

9. Residual topography Hill formed by differential erosion uplift erosion

10. Clastic Sediments and Clastic Sedimentary Rocks A. Sediments B. Sedimentary Rocks

11. Energy and Depositional Environment

12. Worldwide sediment yield of major drainage basins

13. Migration of meanders leads to cross-bedding crossbed from fieldtrip

14. Cross-section of Delta note that delta grows (progrades) towards sea

15. Hjulstrom Curve

16. Pebbles and cobbles Pebbles and cobbles: hard to get moving, an hard to keep moving

17. Hjulstrom Curve Sand Sand: easy to get moving, a fairly easy to keep moving

18. Hjulstrom Curve Silt and Clay Silt and Clay: hard to get moving, but very easy to keep moving

19. Ocean Sediments Part 1

22. Evapotite: common during with continental rifting

39. Fossil Fuels Solid Earth System

40. petroleum Organic-rich source rock, e.g. shale Maturation through burial at the right temperature Collection in a porous reservoir rock Concentration in trap through buoyancy

44. Formation of Ores

45. Some unusual process must: 1) remove specific elements, compounds or minerals from ordinary rock, 2) transport these elements, compounds, or minerals 3) concentrate the elements, compounds, or minerals preferentially at one spot or zone where the transport stops.

46. the primary mechanisms for concentrating minerals into ores involves either: sorting by density sorting by solubility.

48. Concentration through liquid immiscibility Low T Desirable element preferentially concentrated into low-volume melt High T

49. Aqueous fluids in magma As magma cools, the volatiles (mostly water and carbon dioxide) that they contain can form super-critical fluids. supercritical fluids are on the verge of making the phase transition from liquid to gas. because of their extremely high temperature, many elements are soluble. These fluids can concentrate copper, molybdenum, gold, tin, tungsten and lead. The fluids from a large pluton can invade surrounding rocks, along cracks called hydrothermal veins).

50. Aqueous fluids from granitic magma have invaded surrounding rock porphery copper ore

51. Mechanisms that involve oxidation state of the water Ground water can carry dissolved materials. These can precipitate out of solution if the water becomes more or less oxidizing.

52. Example: uranium ore soluable U 6+ is produced during the weathering of igneous rocks. U 6+ was transported by groundwater until it encounters reducing conditions. It is reduced to U 4+ and precipitates as uranium oxide.

53. Mineral Commodities Solid Earth System

65. Geothermal Power

66. 6.5 km – expensive but routine, areas of western US are hot

68. Solution to low permeabiliy Artificially increase permeability by creating fractures “Hydrofracture” … pressurize well until you crack the surrounding rock, routinely used in oil extraction, at least for small volumes of rock

69. Fresh Water Possibly the most Limiting Resource

70. US Water Usage, billion gallons / day Irrigation Domestic Supply Public Supply Livestock & Aquaculture Industrial Mining Thermoelectric Power 80 0.6 27.3 3.4 14.9 1.2 135 Total 262

71. How much irrigation water does the world need? 2000 calories/day minimum At 3 cal/liter 670 liters/day  6 billion people  365 days/year = 1.46  10 15 liters/year = 14700 cubic kilometers per year About 46,000 cu km available

72. Global impoundments of water 8400 km 3 Not much growth in last decade, except in Asia- Australia

73. Good luck with the final best wishes for 2009