1. Cognition, Memory, and Attention ITM 734 Fall 2006 Dr. Cindy Corritore

2. Copyright 2006 Corritore2 of 52 Through all of this …. limited cognitive resources analogy flawed plans (heuristics) simulations (cognitive/mental models) goal – to minimize complexity through improved fit (between user, computer, and task)

3. Copyright 2006 Corritore3 of 52 memory types sensory memory short-term memory long-term memory

4. Copyright 2006 Corritore4 of 52 sensory memory/store (multi-store theory) buffers for incoming data via senses different one for each sense types iconic store – visual store; fades rapidly – can operate on this store echonic store – auditory store - short-lived and space-constrained persistence (fireworks in vision after the fact) some processing even if not attended attention brings it into STM cocktail party phenomenae

5. Copyright 2006 Corritore5 of 52 STM characteristics quick access and quick decay (volatile) limited in size chunking (experts vs. novices) - phone number 402-111-5555 forgetting time decay? interference with new items? (eg. similarity) attention moves off item?

6. Copyright 2006 Corritore6 of 52 STM gateway to sensory and LTM? no – conversation goes directly to LTM role of rehearsal exaggerated (moving from STM to LTM) lots in LTM that is not rehearsed (eg. snapshot of a birthday celebration)

7. Copyright 2006 Corritore7 of 52 STM characteristics recency - last few items in list recalled better than middle - holding most recent items in STM negate with interference? visual and auditory channel - no interference if different channel primacy - first few items in list recalled better than middle (more rehearsal)

8. Copyright 2006 Corritore8 of 52 LTM characteristics Slow but variable access speed Permanent (little decay) Infinite capacity

9. Copyright 2006 Corritore9 of 52 LTM characteristics Retrieval depends on …. recency expectations similarity of information connectedness rehearsal richness & nature of processing at learning level or depth or processing (shallow vs deep perceptual analysis) distinctiveness of processing amount of processing  elaborate far better

10. Copyright 2006 Corritore10 of 52 Richness paragraph – listen and remember …..

11. Copyright 2006 Corritore11 of 52 Types of LTM Explicit and Implicit conscious recollection, top-down retrieval from multiple systems with massive integration (E) unconscious recollection, bottom-up from single system (I) – more automatic

12. Copyright 2006 Corritore12 of 52 Types of LTM Episodic and Semantic self-awareness component, things that happen to you, complex (E) stuff we know, knowledge about the world, relationships, implicit - dictionary, thesaurus likely stored the same way

13. Copyright 2006 Corritore13 of 52 Types of LTM Declarative and Procedural knowing that, explicit primarily, relationships, integration of information (D) – knowing things and their relationships knowing how, mostly implicit, not relational – how to do things

14. Copyright 2006 Corritore14 of 52 Memory structures for stories, events … Schema - framework that includes frames & scripts become chunks for expanding memory basis for expectations Bartlett’s Schema Theory framework for stories that affects comprehension told American Indian stories, then recall - readjusted story elements and themes to fit their model Chunking in experts Helps make it easier to recall, group information Experts have great, robust schema and chunks

15. Copyright 2006 Corritore15 of 52 Everyday memory little studied appears to have a lot of variability eyewitness memory flashbulb memory

16. Copyright 2006 Corritore16 of 52 Eye-witness memory Effects post-event memory - questioning right after the fact can distort (retroactive interference) verbal overshadowing - talking about it right after happens over-writes visual memory memory in the world sketchy (Normal) confirmation bias - affected by what you expect

17. Copyright 2006 Corritore17 of 52 Flash bulb memory what were you doing when heard about 911 disaster? Richness …..

18. Copyright 2006 Corritore18 of 52 LTM processes Storage rehearsal Retrieval Forgetting Recognition vs recall Frequency and recency effects

19. Copyright 2006 Corritore19 of 52 Storage- Rehearsal Memorization involves storing the information and one or more access paths Good memories are rich semantic networks with many (unique) access paths Learning is aided by meaningfulness, structure, familiarity and concreteness Active memorizing requires effort, motivation Passive memorizing - unpredictable, often episodic, context sensitive Similar items interfere if they are not separated during memorizing - learning transfer effects - old interfere with new; new overwrite old

20. Copyright 2006 Corritore20 of 52 Facilitating Memorization Structure information to help chunking - use categories, ordering, associations Encourage reasoning during memorizing - active memory Help access by multiple pathways - memorizing tricks e.g. keywords, cognitive aids, mnemonics, link to image memory (rooms) Make associations clear and keep them consistent

21. Copyright 2006 Corritore21 of 52 Facilitating Memorization Make separate and recognizable contexts for recall - important for script / skill memory Increase depth of encoding Richness Visualization Uniqueness Interaction Recognition

22. Copyright 2006 Corritore22 of 52 Facilitating Memorization: Mnemonics cognitive mnemonics ABC’s with tune on old olympus mountain tops a finn and german viewed some hops (12 crainial nerves: OOOMTAFAGVSH) seems to be more to remember?

23. Copyright 2006 Corritore23 of 52 Facilitating Memorization: Mnemonics check out: http://human-factors.arc.nasa.gov/cognition/tutorials/index.html mnemonic for Norman principles: visibility, feedback, cognitive/conceptual model, affordance, mapping My Fat Cat Ate Veggies

24. Copyright 2006 Corritore24 of 52 Retrieval - Theories of forgetting repression (Freud) - bad experience interference (proactive or retroactive) previous learning/memories interrupt  espc if similar stimuli – belong to same category  eye-witness and post-incident questioning doesn’t explain how it works cue-dependant forget because info not there anymore or *can’t access it encoding specificity principle (cue-dependant) retrieval a func. of overlap between information present at retrieval and info stored in memory  includes contextual info Recognition dependant on internal cues only (not external context)

25. Copyright 2006 Corritore25 of 52 Recall vs. recognition Knowledge in the World Theory is GUI’s - Alan Kay developed in 1960’s Steve Jobs in late 1970’s from Xerox Parc keep knowledge in world to supplement head knowledge recall vs. recognition remember just enough detail to get by exceptions rather then norms experts not expert in knowledge in the head as much as expert in how to locate needed knowledge in the world (Norman Ch 2)

26. Copyright 2006 Corritore26 of 52 Design implications Reduce cognitive load!!! Type of user novice, expert, intermittent user

27. Copyright 2006 Corritore27 of 52 Design implications Mental models natural extensions of schema - support schemas metaphors - desktop/office match system information structure with familiar memory structures so user can use their schema

28. Copyright 2006 Corritore28 of 52 Design implications Design interfaces that help users ‘grow’ good mental models meaningful and familiar command names (eg. from task world) balance this with existing conceptual models of item names (ie. cut, copy) Incorporate closure (finish) on tasks helps build mental model helps identify chunks for memory when become an expert Consistency - to build mental model; don’t have to remember as much

29. Copyright 2006 Corritore29 of 52 Design implications Rich encoding - multimedia interaction context? May just be to ‘remember your site’ http://www.pulse3d.com/pulse/ http://www.jordans.com/roomplanner.asp

30. Copyright 2006 Corritore30 of 52 Design implications Focus on recognition rather than recall interface contains prompts/information studies on computer experts found they don’t have better recall, but high recognition of what is and isn’t available on interface and where to find it (mental maps) GUI’s combination of recognition (menu’s) and recall (quick keys)

31. Copyright 2006 Corritore31 of 52 Design implications Place the burden of remembering on the machine, not the human Don’t require user memory (eg. between screens) Don’t have computer ask for info it can derive

32. Copyright 2006 Corritore32 of 52 Design implications Design minor messages, alerts, warning to be minimally disruptive prevent user from forgetting data stored in short term memory

33. Copyright 2006 Corritore33 of 52 Evaluate these http://happydeluxe.com/ http://www.google.com vs http://www.yahoo.com http://www.google.comhttp://www.yahoo.com http://www.northcantonmedical.org/ http://www.enchantedharp.com/

34. Copyright 2006 Corritore34 of 52 Attention Humans can focus mental resources on a single event/object helps to simplify environmental input (filter) works with perception - perceive what attending to can divide attention (multiprocessing, not parallel) problem - distraction on second task, don’t return to first task in right place.  often use world reminders to hold place in first task (post-it note)

35. Copyright 2006 Corritore35 of 52 Attention examples driving a car -must attend to some stimuli, ignore others listening to this lecture - attend to slides and words, ignore other students, physical plant noises

36. Copyright 2006 Corritore36 of 52 Divided attention doing two things at once affected by task similarity – similar how? practice (experience) - automaticity task difficulty – require more resources than are available? what happens: interference

37. Copyright 2006 Corritore37 of 52 Success in time sharing attention four mechanisms account for how well we divide our attention 1. automaticity and resources 2. resource allocation and switching 3. structural factors 4. confusion and similarity

38. Copyright 2006 Corritore38 of 52 1. automaticity and resources Automatic vs. Controlled : perform task without thinking about it or require attention, conscious control. Happens over time. Controlled – do something directed by thought. Automatic: good as fast, doesn’t interfere with other tasks (need minimal attention), unconscious bad - unavailable to conscious level, hard to change (driving a shift), can interfere with other automatic processes, harder to unlearn do experiment: Stroup Effect (http://www.apa.org/science/stroop.html)http://www.apa.org/science/stroop.html

39. Copyright 2006 Corritore39 of 52 1. automaticity and resources automatic processing can time-share efficiently doesn't require a lot of cognitive resources eg. walking factor: effort and difficulty of additional tasks if task difficult, requires more resources if have dual tasks, performance will decrease since resources are being shared automatic tends to reduce the difficulty

40. Copyright 2006 Corritore40 of 52 1. automaticity and resources can only increase performance so much level equal to ‘full’ resource use on a task, performance data limited (no further benefit from adding more resources) perfect example: no matter how hard I try (invest resources & effort), I won't improve my understanding of a discussion in French beyond a rudimentary level. also called resource-limited

41. Copyright 2006 Corritore41 of 52 1. automaticity and resources bottom line increase effort into a task, improve performance to point if resource limited increase difficulty of task decreases performance unless add resources in dual tasks, if increase resources for one task, will decrease resources for second task and subsequent performance depends on automaticity

42. Copyright 2006 Corritore42 of 52 2. resource allocation and switching result of two + tasks co-occuring now look at how you can allocate and switch attention between tasks we don't have elaborate schemes to optimize resource allocation can improve time sharing with these strategies totally depends on the individual can train how to control attention

43. Copyright 2006 Corritore43 of 52 2. resource allocation and switching optimal allocation schedule vs. actual based on task importance and other factors factors switch cost (so tend to stay with same task even if low priority) cognitive distance of tasks - if close, more confusion when switch (so more costly) faster switch if salient reminders available about task (eg. you can see it vs. just remembering)

44. Copyright 2006 Corritore44 of 52 3. structural factors perceptual resources required, brain structures used, info processing required Bottleneck Theory- use same resources, get a bottleneck that shared tasks must wait for bottom line amt. of interference between two tasks depend on degree to which each requires same resources (shared levels on these three dimensions)

45. Copyright 2006 Corritore45 of 52 4. confusion and similarity confusion: increasing the similarity of processing material decreases efficiency (too similar) eg. mental math and spelling, Stroup effect semantic value of word interferes with ability to report ink color what happens: responses for one task activated and interfere with second task eg. two verbal tasks, one requiring working memory and the other active processing (eg. comprehension)

46. Copyright 2006 Corritore46 of 52 Visual attention theories spotlight vs. zoom lens both correct in part, likely zoom is more appropriate (zoom focus in on what’s imp) how attention works overall gestalt (salient features), focus down on objects and components affected by experience (bananas yellow)

47. Copyright 2006 Corritore47 of 52 Designing for attention examine which configurations minimize task interference voice recognition software - may interfere if user has to perform other verbal activities best with spatial activities avoid imposing two tasks using similar materials (confusion) entering digits while others speaking digits

48. Copyright 2006 Corritore48 of 52 Designing for attention what about background music? requires spatial perception decreased performance with lyrics and word processing examine mental workload

49. Copyright 2006 Corritore49 of 52 Designing for attention Ways to focus user attention structure information group like things  physically, with fonts, with color, spacing, lines, etc. use same spot for same types of information to help with distractions: system should inform you where you were in task when left let user know position in state space avoid unnecessary information display (KISS) make things easy to use/move thru (so user not focused on mechanics of how to use system)

50. Copyright 2006 Corritore50 of 52 Designing for attention taking advantage of automatic processing: quick keys across systems standards (like Windows 95 ^c, ^v, ^x) become automatic problem - appears unrelated to task to most people avoid automaticity by interrupting process (eg. put a window up in middle of keystroke sequence) good for deleting urgent info in prominent area; less urgent to specific area(s)

51. Copyright 2006 Corritore51 of 52 Errors how design for them? will occur save the user ….. Why? we are satisficing, not optimizing always following a plan (heuristics), but most of our plans are flawed

52. Copyright 2006 Corritore52 of 52 Action slips activate wrong schema Norman discusses 6 types of slips - a result of different kinds of automaticity errors capture errors – frequently done takes over (same beginning) description errors – intended action fits several possibilities – pick wrong one data-driven – data interrupts automatic behavior and get wrong behavior associative activation – trigger activates wrong action loss-of-activation – forget why doing something mode – more than once state possible slips vs. mistakes (choose inappropriate goals)

53. Copyright 2006 Corritore53 of 52 Errors ala Te’eni et. al.

54. Copyright 2006 Corritore54 of 52 Designing for errors Schneideman’s guidelines good specificity - what exactly is the problem? constructive guidance - how can user fix/deal with problem? positive tone - vs. illegal, aborted, fatal… user-centered style - how phrase suggestion appropriate physical format - mixed case, placement on screen? Guidelines from Microsoft http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/ library/en- us/debug/base/error_message_guidelines.asp http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/ library/en- us/debug/base/error_message_guidelines.asp