1. The Unification and Consolidation of Italy 1815- 1890
Background to the Period

2. Context 18th century was dominated by kings and empires
Divine right of kings (monarchs were appointed by God and so were answerable only to God)
Absolute monarchs, with little influence from Parliaments
The exceptions to this rule were: The Netherlands, Venice and Switzerland- all republics (conservative in nature and both had overseas empires)
Britain- constitutional monarchy- elected parliament (however only land owning people could vote and parliament also consisted of unelected nobles and churchmen)

5. Wright of Derby, "Experiment with an air pump"

6. The Enlightenment
Austrian, Prussian, Russian and Spanish rulers of the 18th century were called “enlightened despots”
Aimed to modernize their lands while controlling the people
They were enlightened because they tried to use some of the reforming ideas of the time period (the enlightenment)
Despots on the other hands meant they ruled absolutely

7. The Enlightenment
There were forces of change occurring in the 18th century:
Theories about the legitimacy of power- social contract theories
American Revolution encouraged the spread of republican ideas- those who are taxed had a right and a saw in the passing of laws

8. Spread of Revolutionary Ideas
1789 Revolution in France- calling of the Estates General by Louis XVI during the financial crisis
French people demanded rights and freedoms- republican ideas
French Monarchy was at war against its own people the French Republic was proclaimed and in1793 Louis XVI is executed
The revolutionary ideas spread outwards into Europe from France

9. Spread of Revolutionary Ideas
French generals brought these ideas wherever they went (and they were brilliant too) such as Italy and Germany
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity (brotherhood)
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen- people were citizens rather than subjects and therefore had the right to vote

10. Spread of Revolutionary Ideas
Prior to the 18th century, Italy and Germany were many small independent states headed by their own absolutist rulers
Napoleonic Wars these states were partly unified under French rule and therefore French ideas took hold there
This undermined the 18th century tradition of loyalty to monarchs

11. Spread of Revolutionary Ideas
1799 Napoleon established his rule in France and became emperor in 1804
Napoleon became a focus for national feeling
He brought modern style administration and law to Italy and Germany
He inadvertently sowed the seeds of resistance
After the fall of Napoleon, the ideas of right to nationalities independence, will of the people represented in assemblies and elected parliaments- did not go away- they survived
It would be these revolutionary ideas that set the stage for the unification of Italy and Germany

12. Romanticism
18th century saw a revival of classical forms in art and culture
By 1815 romanticism spread- express feelings of the human rather than respect for authority and empires
Personal feeling expressed in freer forms- celebrating the wonders of nature and man
The individual not the community was now celebrated
Romanticism meant less respect for authority; individuality, freedom of expression and acting on those feelings was considered right and good

17. Romanticism
Dress and manners became less formal, a renewed interested in what brought individuals together- language, nationality, feeling of connectedness
The old world order that was being restored by the Congress of Vienna was replaced by romanticism, liberalism and romanticism

18. Terminology and Definitions
The political spectrum- let’s go!
Complicated time period- we must understand how the terms relate to then and how they are meant now….they are different and even in the 18th century there was little agreement to actual definitions
Let us assess our results

19. Liberalism
Latin liber, meaning free- 19th century meaning a belief in political freedom
Freedom from absolute monarchs and states
Freedom under the law- right to a fair trial
Freedom to express political views
Freedom to elect parliaments to discuss laws
These ideas originate from the American Declaration of Independence 1776 and the French Declaration 1789
Natural right of all mean to be free

20. Liberalism
Also refers to economic freedom- government should NOT interfere with people’s desires to improve their lives through their own efforts
No taxes on trade- less taxes on the economy would mean less taxes needed on people’s labour
Capitalism

24. Liberalism
Religion- people should be free to choose whether to believe in and practice religion or to have none- churches should not IMPOSE their beliefs
The limit that liberals placed on freedom was that it should not restrict the right to freedom of others
Do not mistake this with a belief in ‘the people’- most 19th century liberals felt the only people who should have a say in society are those had a share in it (property owners, business owners, elite/wealthy)

25. Liberalism
Democracy to liberals was flawed in that it gave power to the ignorant voice and the uninformed educated classes
Remember Napoleon had used democracy as a way to gain support, essentially by exploiting their ignorance
Social reforms were not supported- if you help those in need it gets in the way of their responsibility to their own lives (so what do they think of universal health care?)
Do not raise taxes- people should be free to keep what they earn

29. Reactionary
Reactionaries were those who were against liberal ideas- reaction against change
Defenders of established order and tradition
Austria, Prussia, and Russia were reactionary states- Clemens von Metternich of Austria: respect for traditional authority keeps society stable
Monarch, aristocracy, the Church

30. Nationalism
Belief in progress and happiness will follow if people of the same nationality live in the same state
Language or culture is what bound people together, not loyalty to a monarch
However not all Nationalists believed the same issues
For Germans- Grossdeutschland- greater Germany
Kleindeutschland- northern Germany
Italy was the same- north and south differences
What united all Nationalists was a dislike of foreign rule

32. Republicans
Nationalists were sometimes republicans- an end to hereditary monarchy
Few of these however- even the radicals still looked at a constitutional monarchy as the best system

33. Summary
Understand what Italy was like before 1815 and what problems were faced by those who wished to unite them
Understand the various attempts to unit Italy before and during 1848/1849 and the reasons for their failures
Understand why changes after 1849 made unification possible in Italy and make a judgment about the personalities involved
Understand the developments after unification and make a judgment about how well the rulers of Italy coped with the problems that arose because of unification