Figure Schematic summary of gastrointestinal tract activities.

Name: Figure Schematic summary of gastrointestinal tract activities.
Uploaded: 2017-06-30T12:23:36+00:00
Duration: PTM43S49
Channel: Francis Boone
Description: Figure Schematic summary of gastrointestinal tract activities.

Figure 14.11 Schematic summary of gastrointestinal tract activities.
Ingestion Food Mechanical breakdown Pharynx Chewing (mouth) Esophagus Churning (stomach) Propulsion Segmentation (small intestine) Swallowing (oropharynx) Digestion Peristalsis (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) Stomach Absorption Lymph vessel Small intestine Blood vessel Large intestine Mainly H2O Feces Anus Defecation

Mouth (oral cavity) Parotid gland Sublingual gland Tongue
Figure 14.1 The human digestive system: Alimentary canal and accessory organs. Mouth (oral cavity) Parotid gland Sublingual gland Tongue Salivary glands Submandibular gland Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Pancreas (Spleen) Liver Gallbladder Transverse colon Duodenum Descending colon Small intestine Jejunum Ascending colon Ileum Large intestine Cecum Sigmoid colon Rectum Appendix Anus Anal canal

Figure 14.12 Peristaltic and segmental movements of the digestive tract.
(b)

Figure 14.12a Peristaltic and segmental movements of the digestive tract.

Figure 14.12b Peristaltic and segmental movements of the digestive tract.

Figure 14.3 Basic structure of the alimentary canal wall.
Visceral peritoneum Intrinsic nerve plexuses Myenteric nerve plexus Submucosal nerve plexus Submucosal glands Mucosa Surface epithelium Lamina propria Muscle layer Submucosa Muscularis externa Longitudinal muscle layer Circular muscle layer Serosa (visceral peritoneum) Nerve Gland in mucosa Lumen Artery Mesentery Vein Duct of gland outside alimentary canal Lymphoid tissue

Figure 14.5b Peritoneal attachments of the abdominal organs.
Diaphragm Lesser omentum Liver Pancreas Duodenum Stomach Visceral peritoneum Transverse colon Greater omentum Mesenteries Parietal peritoneum Small intestine Peritoneal cavity Uterus Rectum Anus Urinary bladder (b)

Figure 14.2a Anatomy of the mouth (oral cavity).
Nasopharynx Hard palate Soft palate Oral cavity Uvula Lips (labia) Palatine tonsil Vestibule Lingual tonsil Oropharynx Lingual frenulum Epiglottis Tongue Laryngopharynx Hyoid bone Esophagus Trachea (a)

Figure 14.9 Human deciduous and permanent teeth. (2 of 2)
Incisors Central (7 yr) Lateral (8 yr) Canine (eyetooth) (11 yr) Premolars (bicuspids) First premolar (11 yr) Second premolar (12–13 yr) Molars First molar (6–7 yr) Permanent teeth Second molar (12–13 yr) Third molar (wisdom tooth) (17–25 yr)

Figure 14.10 Longitudinal section of a molar.
Enamel Dentin Crown Pulp cavity (contains blood vessels and nerves) Neck Gum (gingiva) Cement Root canal Root Periodontal membrane (ligament) Bone

Homeostatic Imbalance 14.15 A baby born with a cleft lip and palate.

Figure 14.2b Anatomy of the mouth (oral cavity).
Upper lip Gingivae (gums) Hard palate Soft palate Uvula Palatine tonsil Oropharynx Tongue (b)

Figure 14.2a Anatomy of the mouth (oral cavity).
Nasopharynx Hard palate Soft palate Oral cavity Uvula Lips (labia) Palatine tonsil Vestibule Lingual tonsil Oropharynx Lingual frenulum Epiglottis Tongue Laryngopharynx Hyoid bone Esophagus Trachea (a)

Bolus of food Tongue Uvula Pharynx Upper esophageal sphincter Bolus
Figure Swallowing. Bolus of food Tongue Uvula Pharynx Upper esophageal sphincter Bolus Epiglottis up Epiglottis down Glottis (lumen) of larynx Larynx up Bolus Trachea Esophagus (a) Upper esophageal sphincter contracted (b) Upper esophageal sphincter relaxed (c) Upper esophageal sphincter contracted Relaxed muscles Cardioesophageal sphincter open (d) Cardioesophageal sphincter relaxed

Bolus of food Tongue Pharynx Upper esophageal sphincter Epiglottis up
Figure 14.14a Swallowing. Bolus of food Tongue Pharynx Upper esophageal sphincter Epiglottis up Glottis (lumen) of larynx Trachea Esophagus (a) Upper esophageal sphincter contracted

Uvula Bolus Epiglottis down Larynx up Esophagus (b) Upper esophageal
Figure 14.14b Swallowing. Uvula Bolus Epiglottis down Larynx up Esophagus (b) Upper esophageal sphincter relaxed

Bolus (c) Upper esophageal sphincter contracted
Figure 14.14c Swallowing. Bolus (c) Upper esophageal sphincter contracted

Relaxed muscles Cardioesophageal sphincter open (d) Cardioesophageal
Figure 14.14d Swallowing. Relaxed muscles Cardioesophageal sphincter open (d) Cardioesophageal sphincter relaxed

Figure 14.4a Anatomy of the stomach.
Cardia Fundus Esophagus Muscularis externa Serosa Longitudinal layer Circular layer Body Oblique layer Lesser curvature Rugae of mucosa Pylorus Greater curvature Duodenum Pyloric sphincter (valve) Pyloric antrum (a)

Figure 14.4b Anatomy of the stomach.
Fundus Body Rugae of mucosa (b) Pyloric sphincter Pyloric antrum

Figure 14.4c Anatomy of the stomach.
Gastric pits Surface epithelium Gastric pit Pyloric sphincter Mucous neck cells Parietal cells Gastric gland Gastric glands Chief cells (c)

Figure 14.4d Anatomy of the stomach.
Pepsinogen Pepsin HCI Parietal cells Chief cells Enteroendocrine cell (d)

Figure 14.15 Peristaltic waves in the stomach.
Pyloric valve closed Pyloric valve slightly opened Pyloric valve closed 1 Propulsion: Peristaltic waves move from the fundus toward the pylorus. 2 Grinding: The most vigorous peristalsis and mixing action occur close to the pylorus. The pyloric end of the stomach acts as a pump that delivers small amounts of chyme into the duodenum. 3 Retropulsion: The peristaltic wave closes the pyloric valve, forcing most of the contents of the pylorus backward into the stomach.

Figure 14.6 The duodenum of the small intestine and related organs.
Right and left hepatic ducts from liver Cystic duct Common hepatic duct Bile duct and sphincter Accessory pancreatic duct Pancreas Gallbladder Jejunum Duodenal papilla Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter Duodenum

Figure 14.7 Structural modifications of the small intestine.
Blood vessels serving the small intestine Microvilli (brush border) Muscle layers Lumen Circular folds (plicae circulares) Villi Absorptive cells Lacteal (c) Absorptive cells Villus (a) Small intestine Blood capillaries Lymphoid tissue Intestinal crypt Muscularis mucosae Venule Lymphatic vessel Submucosa (b) Villi

Figure 14.7a Structural modifications of the small intestine.
Blood vessels serving the small intestine Muscle layers Lumen Circular folds (plicae circulares) Villi (a) Small intestine

Figure 14.7b Structural modifications of the small intestine.
Absorptive cells Lacteal Villus Blood capillaries Lymphoid tissue Intestinal crypt Venule Muscularis mucosae Lymphatic vessel Submucosa (b) Villi

Figure 14.7c Structural modifications of the small intestine.
Microvilli (brush border) (c) Absorptive cells

Figure 14.8 The large intestine.
Left colic (splenic) flexure Transverse mesocolon Right colic (hepatic) flexure Transverse colon Haustrum Descending colon Ascending colon Cut edge of mesentery Ileum (cut) Ileocecal valve Teniae coli Sigmoid colon Cecum Appendix Rectum Anal canal External anal sphincter

Figure 14.9 Human deciduous and permanent teeth.
Incisors Central (6–8 mo) Lateral (8–10 mo) Canine (eyetooth) (16–20 mo) Molars First molar (10–15 mo) Second molar (about 2 yr) Deciduous (milk) teeth Incisors Central (7 yr) Lateral (8 yr) Canine (eyetooth) (11 yr) Premolars (bicuspids) First premolar (11 yr) Second premolar (12–13 yr) Molars First molar (6–7 yr) Permanent teeth Second molar (12–13 yr) Third molar (wisdom tooth) (17–25 yr)

Figure 14.9 Human deciduous and permanent teeth. (1 of 2)
Incisors Central (6–8 mo) Lateral (8–10 mo) Canine (eyetooth) (16–20 mo) Molars First molar (10–15 mo) Second molar (about 2 yr) Deciduous (milk) teeth

Figure 14.13 Flowchart of digestion and absorption of foodstuffs.
Enzyme(s) and source Site of action Starch and disaccharides Digestion of carbohydrates Salivary amylase Mouth Pancreatic amylase Small intestine Oligosaccharides* and disaccharides Brush border enzymes in small intestine (dextrinase, glucoamylase, lactase, maltase, and sucrase) Small intestine Lactose Maltose Sucrose Galactose Glucose Fructose Absorption of carbohydrates The monosaccharides glucose, galactose, and fructose enter the capillary blood in the villi and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. Protein Digestion of proteins Pepsin (stomach glands) in the presence of HCI Stomach Large polypeptides Pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase) Small intestine Small polypeptides, small peptides Brush border enzymes (aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase, and dipeptidase) Small intestine Amino acids (some dipeptides and tripeptides) Absorption of proteins Amino acids enter the capillary blood in the villi and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. Unemulsified fats Digestion of fats Emulsified by the detergent action of bile salts from the liver Small intestine Pancreatic lipase Small intestine Monoglycerides and fatty acids Glycerol and fatty acids Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the lacteals of the villi and are transported to the systemic circulation via the lymph in the thoracic duct. (Glycerol and short-chain fatty acids are absorbed into the capillary blood in the villi and transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.) Absorption of fats *Oligosaccharides consist of a few linked monosaccharides.

Starch and disaccharides
Figure Flowchart of digestion and absorption of foodstuffs. (1 of 3) Foodstuff Enzyme(s) and source Site of action Starch and disaccharides Digestion of carbohydrates Salivary amylase Mouth Pancreatic amylase Small intestine Oligosaccharides* and disaccharides Brush border enzymes in small intestine (dextrinase, glucoamylase, lactase, maltase, and sucrase) Small intestine Lactose Maltose Sucrose Galactose Glucose Fructose The monosaccharides glucose, galactose, and fructose enter the capillary blood in the villi and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. Absorption of carbohydrates *Oligosaccharides consist of a few linked monosaccharides.

(trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase) Small intestine
Figure Flowchart of digestion and absorption of foodstuffs. (2 of 3) Foodstuff Enzyme(s) and source Site of action Protein Digestion of proteins Pepsin (stomach glands) in the presence of HCI Stomach Large polypeptides Pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase) Small intestine Small polypeptides, small peptides Brush border enzymes (aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase, and dipeptidase) Small intestine Amino acids (some dipeptides and tripeptides) Absorption of proteins Amino acids enter the capillary blood in the villi and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.

bile salts from the liver Small intestine
Figure Flowchart of digestion and absorption of foodstuffs. (3 of 3) Foodstuff Enzyme(s) and source Site of action Unemulsified fats Digestion of fats Emulsified by the detergent action of bile salts from the liver Small intestine Pancreatic lipase Small intestine Monoglycerides and fatty acids Glycerol and fatty acids Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the lacteals of the villi and are transported to the systemic circulation via the lymph in the thoracic duct. (Glycerol and short-chain fatty acids are absorbed into the capillary blood in the villi and transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein.) Absorption of fats

release cholecytokinin (CCK) and secretin.
Figure Regulation of pancreatic juice and bile secretion and release. 4 Secretin causes the liver to secrete more bile; CCK stimulates the gallbladder to release stored bile and the hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax (allows bile from both sources to enter the duodenum). 1 Chyme entering duodenum causes duodenal enteroendocrine cells to release cholecytokinin (CCK) and secretin. 2 CCK (red dots) and secretin (blue dots) enter the bloodstream. Stimulation by vagal nerve fibers cause release of pancreatic juice and weak contractions of the gallbladder. 5 3 Upon reaching the pancreas, CCK induces secretion of enzyme-rich pancreatic juice; secretin causes secretion of bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice.

Table 14.1 Hormones and Hormonelike Products That Act in Digestion (1 of 2).

Table 14.1 Hormones and Hormonelike Products That Act in Digestion (2 of 2).

A Closer Look 14.1 Peptic Ulcers: “Something Is Eating at Me.”
Bacteria Mucosa layer of stomach (a) A peptic ulcer lesion (b) H. pylori bacteria

A Closer Look 14.1a Peptic Ulcers: “Something Is Eating at Me.”
A peptic ulcer lesion

A Closer Look 14.1b Peptic Ulcers: “Something Is Eating at Me.”
Bacteria Mucosa layer of stomach (b) H. pylori bacteria

Table 14.2 Five Basic Food Groups and Some of Their Major Nutrients (1 of 2).

Table 14.2 Five Basic Food Groups and Some of Their Major Nutrients (2 of 2).

Figure 14.17 Two visual food guides.
Red meat, butter: use sparingly White rice, white bread, potatoes, pasta, sweets: use sparingly Dairy or calcium supplement: 1–2 servings Fish, poultry, eggs: 0–2 servings Nuts, legumes: 1–3 servings Vegetables in abundance Fruits: 2–3 servings Whole-grain foods at most meals Plant oils at most meals Daily exercise and weight control (a) Healthy Eating Pyramid (b) USDA’s MyPlate

Figure 14.17a Two visual food guides.
Red meat, butter: use sparingly White rice, white bread, potatoes, pasta, sweets: use sparingly Dairy or calcium supplement: 1–2 servings Fish, poultry, eggs: 0–2 servings Nuts, legumes: 1–3 servings Vegetables in abundance Fruits: 2–3 servings Whole-grain foods at most meals Plant oils at most meals Daily exercise and weight control (a) Healthy Eating Pyramid

Figure 14.17b Two visual food guides.
USDA’s MyPlate

Figure 14.18 The eight essential amino acids.
Beans and other legumes Tryptophan Methionine Valine Threonine Phenylalanine Leucine Isoleucine Corn and other grains Lysine

Figure 14.19 Summary equation for cellular respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP Glucose Oxygen gas Carbon dioxide Water Energy

Chemical energy (high-energy electrons)
Figure During cellular respiration, ATP is formed in the cytosol and in the mitochondria. Chemical energy (high-energy electrons) CO2 Chemical energy CO2 Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation Glycolysis Krebs cycle Pyruvic acid Glucose H2O Mitochondrion Cytosol of cell Mitochondrial cristae Via oxidative phosphorylation Via substrate-level phosphorylation 2 ATP 2 ATP 28 ATP 1 During glycolysis, each glucose molecule is broken down into two molecules of pyruvic acid as hydrogen atoms containing high-energy electrons are removed. 2 The pyruvic acid enters the mitochondrion, where Krebs cycle enzymes remove more hydrogen atoms and decompose it to CO2. During glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, small amounts of ATP are formed. 3 Energy-rich electrons picked up by coenzymes are transferred to the electron transport chain, built into the cristae membrane. The electron transport chain carries out oxidative phosphorylation, which accounts for most of the ATP generated by cellular respiration, and finally unites the removed hydrogen with oxygen to form water.

of the electron transport chain
Figure Electron transport chain versus one-step reduction of oxygen. NADH NAD+ + H+ Energy released as heat and light 2e− Energy released and now available for making ATP of the electron transport chain Protein carriers e− Electron flow O2 (a) (b)

of the electron transport chain
Figure 14.21a Electron transport chain versus one-step reduction of oxygen. NADH NAD+ + H+ 2e− Energy released and now available for making ATP of the electron transport chain Protein carriers e− Electron flow (a) O2

Energy released as heat and light
Figure 14.21b Electron transport chain versus one-step reduction of oxygen. Energy released as heat and light (b)

Figure 14.22 Metabolism by body cells.
Carbohydrates: polysaccharides, disaccharides; composed of simple sugars (monosaccharides) ATP Polysaccharides Glycogen and fat broken down for ATP formation Cellular uses GI digestion to simple sugars To capillary Excess stored as glycogen or fat Broken down to glucose and released to blood Monosaccharides (b) Fats: composed of 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids; triglycerides Cellular uses ATP Fats are the primary fuels in many cells Metabolized by liver to acetic acid, etc. Lipid (fat) Fatty acids GI digestion to fatty acids and glycerol Insulation and fat cushions to protect body organs Fats build myelin sheaths and cell membranes Glycerol (c) Proteins: polymers of amino acids ATP formation if inadequate glucose and fats or if essential amino acids are lacking ATP Protein Normally infrequent Functional proteins (enzymes, antibodies, hemoglobin, etc.) GI digestion to amino acids Cellular uses Structural proteins (connective tissue fibers, muscle proteins, etc.) Amino acids (d) ATP formation (fueling the metabolic furnace): all categories of food can be oxidized to provide energy molecules (ATP) Carbon dioxide Cellular metabolic “furnace”: Monosaccharides Water Krebs cycle and electron transport chain Fatty acids Amino acids (amine first removed and combined with CO2 by the liver to form urea) ATP

Figure 14.22a Metabolism by body cells.
Carbohydrates: polysaccharides, disaccharides; composed of simple sugars (monosaccharides) ATP Glycogen and fat broken down for ATP formation Polysaccharides Cellular uses GI digestion to simple sugars To capillary Excess stored as glycogen or fat Broken down to glucose and released to blood Monosaccharides

Figure 14.22b Metabolism by body cells.
Fats: composed of 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acids; triglycerides Cellular uses ATP Fats are the primary fuels in many cells Lipid (fat) Metabolized by liver to acetic acid, etc. Fatty acids GI digestion to fatty acids and glycerol Insulation and fat cushions to protect body organs Fats build myelin sheaths and cell membranes Glycerol

Figure 14.22c Metabolism by body cells.
Proteins: polymers of amino acids ATP formation if inadequate glucose and fats or if essential amino acids are lacking ATP Normally infrequent Protein Functional proteins (enzymes, antibodies, hemoglobin, etc.) GI digestion to amino acids Cellular uses Structural proteins (connective tissue fibers, muscle proteins, etc.) Amino acids

Figure 14.22d Metabolism by body cells.
ATP formation (fueling the metabolic furnace): all categories of food can be oxidized to provide energy molecules (ATP) Carbon dioxide Cellular metabolic “furnace”: Monosaccharides Water Fatty acids Krebs cycle and electron transport chain Amino acids (amine first removed and combined with CO2 by the liver to form urea) ATP

HOMEOSTATIC BLOOD SUGAR
Figure Metabolic events occurring in the liver as blood glucose levels rise and fall. Glycogenesis: Glucose converted to glycogen and stored Stimulus: Rising blood glucose level IMBALANCE HOMEOSTATIC BLOOD SUGAR Stimulus: Falling blood glucose level IMBALANCE Glycogenolysis: Stored glycogen converted to glucose Gluconeogenesis: Amino acids and fats converted to glucose

Table 14.3 Factors Determining the Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR).

Figure 14.24 Mechanisms of body temperature regulation.
Skin blood vessels dilate: Capillaries become flushed with warm blood; heat radiates from skin surface Activates heat-loss center in hypothalamus Sweat glands activated: Secrete perspiration, which is vaporized by body heat, helping to cool the body Body temperature decreases: Blood temperature declines and hypothalamus heat-loss center “shuts off” Blood warmer than hypothalamic set point Stimulus: Increased body temperature (e.g., when exercising or the climate is hot) IMBALANCE HOMEOSTASIS = normal body temperature (35.6°C–37.8°C) Stimulus: Decreased body temperature (e.g., due to cold environmental temperatures) IMBALANCE Skin blood vessels constrict: Blood is diverted from skin capillaries and withdrawn to deeper tissues; minimizes overall heat loss from skin surface Blood cooler than hypothalamic set point Body temperature increases: Blood temperature rises and hypothalamus heat-promoting center “shuts off” Activates heat- promoting center in hypothalamus Skeletal muscles activated when more heat must be generated; shivering begins

Figure 14.24 Mechanisms of body temperature regulation. (1 of 2)
Skin blood vessels dilate: Capillaries become flushed with warm blood; heat radiates from skin surface Activates heat-loss center in hypothalamus Sweat glands activated: Secrete perspiration, which is vaporized by body heat, helping to cool the body Body temperature decreases: Blood temperature declines and hypothalamus heat-loss center “shuts off” Blood warmer than hypothalamic set point Stimulus: Increased body temperature (e.g., when exercising or the climate is hot) IMBALANCE HOMEOSTASIS = normal body temperature (35.6°C–37.8°C) IMBALANCE

Figure 14.24 Mechanisms of body temperature regulation. (2 of 2)
IMBALANCE HOMEOSTASIS = normal body temperature (35.6°C–37.8°C) Stimulus: Decreased body temperature (e.g., due to cold environmental temperatures) IMBALANCE Skin blood vessels constrict: Blood is diverted from skin capillaries and withdrawn to deeper tissues; minimizes overall heat loss from skin surface Blood cooler than hypothalamic set point Body temperature increases: Blood temperature rises and hypothalamus heat-promoting center “shuts off” Activates heat- promoting center in hypothalamus Skeletal muscles activated when more heat must be generated; shivering begins

A Closer Look 14.2 Obesity.

Digestive System Endocrine System Nervous System
Systems in Sync 14.1 Homestatic Relationships between the Digestive System and Other Body Systems. Endocrine System Nervous System Liver removes hormones from blood, ending their activity; digestive system provides nutrients needed for energy fuel, growth, and repair; pancreas has hormone-producing cells Digestive system produces nutrients for normal neural functioning Neural controls of digestive function; in general, para- sympathetic fibers accelerate and sympathetic fibers inhibit digestive activity; reflex and voluntary controls of defecation Local hormones help regulate digestive function Respiratory System Digestive system provides nutrients for energy metabolism, growth, and repair Lymphatic System/Immunity Digestive system provides nutrients for normal functioning; HCI of stomach provides nonspecific protection against bacteria Respiratory system provides oxygen and carries away carbon dioxide produced by digestive system organs Cardiovascular System Lacteals drain fatty lymph from digestive tract organs and convey it to blood; Peyer’s patches and lymphoid tissue in mesentery house macrophages and immune cells that protect digestive tract organs against infection Digestive system provides nutrients to heart and blood vessels; absorbs iron needed for hemoglobin synthesis; absorbs water necessary for normal blood volume Cardiovascular system transports nutrients absorbed by alimentary canal to all tissues of the body; distributes hormones of the digestive tract Digestive System Reproductive System Urinary System Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair and extra nutrition needed to support fetal growth Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair Kidneys transform vitamin D to its active form, which is needed for calcium absorption; excrete some bilirubin produced by the liver Integumentary System Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair; supplies fats that provide insulation in the dermal and subcutaneous tissues The skin synthesizes vitamin D needed for calcium absorption from the intestine; protects by enclosure Muscular System Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair; liver removes lactic acid, resulting from muscle activity, from the blood Skeletal System Digestive system provides nutrients for energy fuel, growth, and repair; absorbs calcium needed for bone salts Skeletal muscles activity increases contractions of GI tract Skeletal system protects some digestive organs by bone; cavities store some nutrients (e.g., calcium, fats)

Figure Schematic summary of gastrointestinal tract activities.

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