M1: Water and Sanitation in Regard to the Millennium Development Goals

M1: Water and Sanitation in Regard to the Millennium Development Goals
DEMO-VERSION: LINKS TO EXTERNAL DOCUMENTS DO NOT WORK! M1: Water and Sanitation in Regard to the Millennium Development Goals M1-2: Water Basics K. Conradin (1&3) M. Kropac (2&4) Katharina Conradin, seecon international Dr. Johannes Heeb, International Ecological Engineering Society & seecon international Prof. Dr. Petter Jenssen, Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences Dr. Ken Gnanakan, ACTS Bangalore, India © 2006 seecon International gmbh ACTS Agriculture -Crafts - Trades - Studies

Credits K. Conradin Materials included in this CD-ROM comprise materials from various organisations. The materials complied on this CD are freely available at the internet, following the open-source concept for capacity building and non-profit use, provided proper acknowledgement of the source is made. The publication of these materials on this CD-ROM does not alter any existing copyrights. Material published on this CD for the first time follows the same open-source concept for capacity building and non-profit use, with all rights remaining with the original authors / producing organisations. Therefore the user should please always give credit in citations to the original author, source and copyright holder. We thank all individuals and institutions that have provided information for this CD, especially the German Agency for Technical Cooperation GTZ, Ecosanres, Ecosan Norway, the International Water and Sanitation Centre IRC, the Stockholm Environment Institute SEI, the World Health Organisation WHO, the Hesperian Foundation, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SIDA, the Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries SANDEC of the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Sanitation by Communities SANIMAS, the Stockholm International Water Institute SIWI, the Water Supply & Sanitation Collaborative Council WSSCC, the World Water Assessment Programme of the UNESCO, the Tear Fund, Wateraid, and all others that have contributed in some way to this curriculum. We apologize in advance if references are missing or incorrect, and welcome feedback if errors are detected. We encourage all feedback on the composition and content of this curriculum. Please direct it either to or seecon K. Conradin

Credits ecosan Curriculum - Credits
K. Conradin ecosan Curriculum - Credits Concept and ecosan expertise: Johannes Heeb, Petter D. Jenssen, Ken Gnanakan Compiling of Information: Katharina Conradin Layout: Katharina Conradin Photo Credits: Mostly Johannes Heeb & Katharina Conradin, otherwise as per credit. Text Credits: As per source indication. Financial support: Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC) How to obtain the curriculum material Free download of PDF tutorials: Order full curriculum CD: € 50 (€ 10 Developing Countries) Release: 1.0, March 2006, 1000 copies Feedback: Feedback regarding improvements, errors, experience of use etc. is welcome. Please notify the above -addresses. Sources Copyright: Copyright of the individual sources lies with the authors or producing organizations. Copying is allowed as long as references are properly acknowledged. seecon

The global water resources situation Freshwater use
Contents K. Conradin The Water Circle The global water resources situation Freshwater use Competing uses for Freshwater Increase freshwater demand Water Scarcity Global Situation Reasons Consequences Groundwater Reserves Depletion Water Pollution Basic Water Needs

Water Resources – The global situation
Less than 3% of the world’s water is fresh – the rest is seawater and undrinkable. Of this 3% over 2.5% is frozen, locked up in Antarctica the Arctic and glaciers, and not available to man. Thus humanity must rely on this 0.5% for all of man’s and ecosystem’s fresh water needs. NOTE: Since 1950 there has been a rapid expansion of groundwater exploitation providing: 50% of all drinking water, 40% of industrial water and 20% of irrigation water. There has been a 7 fold increase in global storage capacity since 1950. 10,000,000 km3 stored in underground aquifers. 119,000 km3 net of rainfall falling on land after accounting for evaporation. 91,000 km3 in natural lakes. Over 5,000 km3 in man made storage facilities reservoirs. 2,120 km3 in rivers – constantly replaced from rainfall and melting snow, ice. In hydrology, an aquifer is a rock layer that contains water and releases it in appreciable amounts. The rock contains water-filled pore spaces, and, when the spaces are connected, the water is able to flow through the matrix of the rock. An aquifer also may be called a water-bearing stratum, lens, or zone. A confined aquifer is a water-bearing stratum that is confined or overlain by a rock layer that does not transmit water in any appreciable amount or that is impermeable. There probably are few truly confined aquifers, because tests have shown that the confining strata, or layers, although they do not readily transmit water, over a period of time contribute large quantities of water by slow leakage to supplement production from the principal aquifer. A groundwater aquifer is said to be unconfined when its upper surface (water table) is open to the atmosphere through permeable material. As opposed to a confined aquifer, the water table in an unconfined aquifer system has no overlying impervious rock layer to separate it from the atmosphere (27, 28). Source: (1)

Water Circle - General All energy from the water cycle comes from the sun. Water evaporates either directly from water bodies (rivers, lakes, sea) or through evapotranspiration, i.e. through plants and comes back to the earth in the form of rain, snow, hail, dew or fog. However, mankind has started to influence and even disrupt this cycle to a great extent. Global warming leads to a rise in sea level Climate change leads to a different distribution of precipitation Additional storage room is created which influences the water flow in rivers and streams Liquid water is converted to water vapour by evapotranspiration as vegetation extracts water from the soil and emits it through stoma (pores in the leave surface) on the leaves and by evaporation directly from the surface of the soil when water from below is diffused upward. Evaporation occurs at the surface of water bodies at a rate inversely proportional to the relative humidity just above the surface. Evaporation is rapid in dry air but much slower when the lowest levels of the atmosphere are almost saturated. Evaporation from soil is dependent on the rate at which moisture is supplied by capillary suction within the soil, while evapotranspiration is dependent on the water available to plants within the root zone and whether or not the stoma are open on the leaf surfaces. Water that evaporates and evapotranspires into the atmosphere is often transported long distances over the Earth before it is precipitated again (25). Source: (1)

The water cycle The global water cycle is comprised of many small, local or regional water cycles, depending on the precipitation, the topography, soil characteristics and many other factors, which is illustrated by the figure below. © P. Jenssen

Water Cycle – Human Influence
Rise in sea level: Water bound in snow and ice (glaciers, poles) is melting due to global change and climate warming. This results in a rise in the sea level between 15 and 90 cm by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). This threatens millions of people living on small islands or close to the seashore. The rise in sea level is increased as a result of thermal expansion of the oceans – warmer water has a larger volume than colder water. The effects include among others Increased coastal erosion, higher storm-surge flooding more extensive coastal inundation salt water intrusion increased flood risk impacts on agriculture and aquaculture through decline in soil and water quality. Rise in Sea level: Water bound in snow and ice (glaciers, poles) is melting due to global change and climate warming. This results in a rise in sea level which then again threatens millions of people living on small islands or close to the seashore. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change models project an increase in sea level of about 50 cm from the present to 2100 for the best (i.e. lowest emission) scenario – combined with other factors such as the ice melt sensitivities, the lowest projected increase is expected to be about 15 cm. In the worst case, i. e with high ice melt sensitivities and continuously high emissions („business as usual“), sea level could rise as much as 95 cm during the next century (11). The rise in sea level is increased as a result of thermal expansion of the oceans – warmer water has a larger volume than colder water. The effects of a rising sea levels are manifold and include among others: Increased coastal erosion, higher storm-surge flooding, more extensive coastal inundation (which is especially dramatic in countries situated only slightly above sea level, such as for instance Bangladesh), changes in surface water quality and groundwater characteristics due to salt water intrusion, increased flood risk and potential loss of life, loss of tourism, recreation, and transportation functions and impacts on agriculture and aquaculture through decline in soil and water quality. Additionally, as a consequence of sea level rise, a calculable effect on water tables is that the interface between freshwater and brackish water will move inland, which may have significant impacts on the development and the life of people in coastal regions and in small islands (5). Adopted from: (11, 5)

Water Cycle – Human Influence
Different distribution patterns: Different distribution patterns likely due to global climate change. Regions now under water stress can get more rainfall – but also that water scarcity can even be increased. Vice versa, regions with sufficient rainfall can get drier as well. It is likely that single occurrences are more intensive (droughts & floods). Increase in storage capacity: There has been a 7 fold increase in global storage capacity since (artificial lakes, large dam projects etc.) (12). This has severe consequences on downstream ecosystems. Different distribution of precipitation: Though not all connections between global warming and changes in precipitation patterns are clear, different distribution patterns are very likely in the next decades. On the one hand, this can mean that regions now under water stress can get more rainfall – but on the other hand, water scarcity can even be increased in already drought prone areas, or regions with sufficient rainfall can get drier as well. Additionally, it is likely that single occurrences are more intensive and lead to floods on the one hand and longer and more intense droughts on the other hand. Increase in storage capacity: There has been a 7 fold increase in global storage capacity since 1950 (13). Water that was part of the natural water cycle is now being drawn out of this and is being stored in artificial lakes, large dam projects etc. This has severe consequences on downstream ecosystems, which now get a much smaller share of water. Additionally, the lower water supply also increases the concentration of pollutants and minimises the life quality of those further downstream.

Water for products: as an ingredient
Freshwater – Use Drinking water: By taking an average of 3l drinking water per day, the total volume used per capita/year is only roughly 1 m3 Irrigation: In many countries, agricultural use (food production) makes up for most of the total human water usage. The production of animal calories needs 8 times more water than that of vegetable calories. WBCSD Energy Production: The largest single use of water by industry is for cooling in thermal power generation. Process water: Paper mills, textile firms etc. Large water volumes to be treated. Drinking water: though drinking water is the most important one for survival, it amounts to the smallest volume: By taking an average of 2l drinking water per day, the total volume used per capita/year is less than 1 cubic meter (1). Irrigation: In many countries, agricultural use (food production) makes up for most of the total human water usage (see next slide). The production of animal calories needs 8 times more water than that of vegetable calories (2). Industry: Energy Production Multi purpose hydro projects manage water for many interests: flood control, irrigation, recreation and drinking water and of course – energy production (hydroelectric turbines). The largest single use of water by industry is for cooling in thermal (coal, gas, oil, nuclear fuel) power generation (1). Process water (i.e. paper mills, textile firms etc.): The use of freshwater in processes also plays a significant role in total human water usage. Here, the generation of huge volumes of partly highly polluted wastewater, this use is problematic in terms of the large volumes of water to be treated (1). Water for products: Water is used as an ingredient in many sectors: food, beverage and pharmaceutical sectors (1). Medium for waste disposal: After the use in the above processes, many businesses just discard the wastewater into rivers and other waterbodies. Figures vary, but according to the WHO only between 0 % and 35 % of the wastewaters created get some kind of treatment (3). Medium for waste disposal: Figures vary, but according to the WHO only between 0% and 35 % of the wastewaters created get some kind of treatment. Most wastewaters are just induced into nearby waterbodies. Water for products: as an ingredient Source: (1)

Freshwater – Increasing Pressure on Freshwater
Human activity Potential Impact Function at risk Population and consumption growth Increased requirement Increases water abstraction & acquisition of cultivated land through wetland drainage. Virtually all ecosystem functions including habitat, production and regulation functions Infrastructure development (dams, dikes, levees, diversions etc.) Loss of integrity alters timing and quantity of river flows, water temperature, nutrient and sediment transport and thus delta replenishment; blocks fish migrations Water quantity and quality, habitats, floodplain fertility, fisheries, delta economies Land conversion Eliminates key components of aquatic environment; loss of functions; integrity; habitat and biodiversity; alters runoff patterns; inhibits natural recharge, fills water bodies with silt; Natural flood control, habitats for fisheries and waterfowl, recreation, water supply, water quantity and quality Source: (12)

Freshwater – Increasing Pressure on Freshwater
Human activity Potential Impact Function at risk Overharvesting and exploitation Depletes living resources, ecosystem functions and biodiversity (groundwater depletion, collapse of fisheries) Food production, water supply, water quality and water quantity Introduction of exotic species Competition from introduced species; alters production and nutrient cycling; and causes loss of biodiversity among native species Food production, wildlife habitat, recreation Release of pollutants to land, air or water Pollution of water bodies alters chemistry and ecology of rivers, lakes and wetlands; greenhouse gas emissions produce dramatic changes in runoff and rainfall patterns Water supply, habitat, water quality, food production; climate change may also impact hydropower, dilution capacity, transport, flood control Source: (12)

Freshwater – Use Domestic use Agricultural use Industrial use
In many developing nations, irrigation accounts for over 90% of water withdrawn from available sources for use. Yet again, water and rainfall are not evenly distributed across the world: In England, where rain is abundant year round, water used for agriculture accounts for less than 1% of human usage. Yet even on the same continent, water used for irrigation in Spain, Portugal and Greece exceeds 70% of total usage. Irrigation has been a key component of the green revolution that has enabled many developing countries to produce enough food to feed everyone. The percentages are even higher in countries with water-scarce area: In both India and China, the percentage of the total human water usage is around 90 % (1). Integrated land, water and crop management, new tillage systems, water harvesting, supplemental irrigation and a particular focus on soil fertility and diversification of production systems, are particularly important and can help to increase the productivity without needing more freshwater. Still, we must accept the fact that more food will require appropriation of freshwater currently consumed by other ecosystems, such as forests, grasslands and wetlands. The large required increase in food production will result in environmental trade-offs. More rainfall and water from aquatic ecosystems will be manually allocated to sustain food production. Additionally, it must be recognized that climate change is also likely to lead to increased magnitude and frequency of precipitation-related disasters: floods, droughts, mudslides, typhoons and cyclones. 'While in the past there was a tendency to regard water problems as being local or regional in nature, there is a growing recognition that their increasingly widespread occurrence is quickly adding up to a crisis of global importance' (20). Source: (1) Domestic use Agricultural use Industrial use The introduction into developing countries of new strains of wheat and rice was a major aspect of what became known as the Green Revolution. Given adequate water and ample amounts of the required chemical fertilizers and pesticides, these varieties have resulted in significantly higher yields. Poorer farmers, however, often have not been able to provide the required growing conditions and therefore have obtained even lower yields with “improved” grains than they had gotten with the older strains that were better adapted to local conditions and that had some resistance to pests and diseases. Where chemicals are used, concern has been voiced about their cost—since they generally must be imported—and about their potentially harmful effects on the environment (26).

recurrent drought years high evaporative demand
Freshwater – Use Near congruence between there regions where the majority of the hunger- prone countries are located and the arid zone with savannah type climate. Seasonal rainfall with intermittent dry spells making the rainfall unreliable recurrent drought years high evaporative demand often vulnerable soils with low permeability and low water holding capacity Additionally, the area of irrigated land more than doubled in the twentieth century (5). The freshwater use is going to increase drastically over the next couple of decades in order to produce enough food. Thus, there is an urgent need for agricultural and water policies rainwater management rainfall infiltration water harvesting systems (2) The freshwater use is going to increase drastically over the next couple of decades. According to the Stockholm Environment Institute, a 50 % increase in freshwater use will be required over the coming decade in order to reach the MDG target of halving the proportion of hungry by In countries experiencing rapid population growth which also face a large under-nourishment challenge, such as India, Kenya and Nigeria, the required increase reaches 100 % until 2015 (2). In the poorest countries most food is produced by smallholder farmers in rainfed agriculture. Investments in water management in these communities, which would stabilise food production over time, would benefit all people, and in particular give women and children a chance to avoid water driven hunger shocks. Thus, there is an urgent need for agricultural and water policies that promote improved rainwater management, both in-situ systems for rainfall infiltration and water harvesting systems that add new water through supplemental irrigation (2).This is also recognized in the United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000), which again called upon all members of the UN to stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources by developing water management strategies at the regional, national and local levels which promote both equitable access and adequate supplies (5).

Freshwater – Increased Demand
< 40 % 40 – 80 % 80 – 120 % > 120 % Missing Data In basically all developing countries, the freshwater use for food production will increase strongly. This can mainly be attributed to population growth – more people require more food, i.e. agricultural products. Along with increased purchasing power and a strong urbanization trend, there is also a global trend towards higher and higher animal protein intake. As animal calories require eight or more times more water compared to agricultural production of vegetal calories. This has particular implications on the water requirement approximations for countries where animal protein levels according FAO statistics are very low (2). Percentage increase in consumptive water use for food production by 2015 compared to today Source: (2) In basically all developing countries, the freshwater use for food production will increase strongly. This can mainly be attributed to population growth – more people require more food, i.e. agricultural products. Meat production needs significantly more water than the production of vegetables.

Water Scarcity – Global Situation
Source: (29) Water scarcity (or water stress) occurs in situations where there are not enough water resources to cover all uses whether agricultural, industrial or domestic. Defining thresholds for stress in terms of available water per capita is more complex, however, entailing assumptions about water use and its efficiency (1) Nevertheless, it has been proposed that when annual per capita renewable freshwater availability is less than 1,700 cubic meters, countries begin to experience periodic or regular water stress. Below 1,000 cubic meters, water scarcity begins to hamper economic development and human health and well-being (1). 0 – 0.2: Low water stress 0.2 – 0.4: Medium water stress > Severe water stress In 2000, the majority of the sixteen megacities were found along the coasts, within regions experiencing mild to severe water stress (particularly in Asia). The map uses a conventional measure of water stress, the ratio of total annual water withdrawals (1995) divided by the estimated total water availability (average ).

Water Scarcity – General
Water scarcity is a relative concept (social construct, product of affluence, expectations and customary behaviour, or a result of climate change) (3). Scarcity often has its roots in water shortage. Drought-affected regions with large climatic variability suffer most (6). Water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of the population increase during the last century. (6). By 2025, 1.8 billion people will live in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity and 2/3 of the world population could be under stress conditions (UN) (6). In most countries, agriculture dominates the demand for water (irrigation). (6). Poor communities tend to suffer the greatest health burden from inadequate water supplies and as result of ill-health are unable to move out of a cycle of poverty and disease. (6). Water scarcity is a relative concept and can occur at any level of supply or demand. Scarcity may be a social construct, a product of affluence, expectations and customary behaviour, or a change in supply pattern due to climate change. A society confronting water scarcity usually has options (improving the efficiency of water used, water saving concepts, the adaptation of agriculture to more drought resistant crops etc.) However, scarcity often has its roots in water shortage, and it is in regions affected by droughts and large climatic variability, combined with population growth and economic development that the problems of water scarcity are the most acute (3). Water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of the population increase during the last century, and although there is no such thing as global water scarcity, an increasing number of regions are chronically water short. By 2025, 1.8 billion people will live in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity and 2/3 of the world population could be under stress conditions (6) The UN estimates most of the growth will take place in developing countries that already suffer from water stress (1). Most countries in the Middle East and North Africa suffer from acute water scarcity, as well as countries like Pakistan, South Africa, and large parts of India and China. Irrigated agriculture, which represents the bulk of the demand for water in these countries, is also usually the first sector affected by policy responses to water shortage and increased scarcity, resulting in a decreased capacity to maintain their per capita food production while meeting water needs for domestic, industrial, and environmental purposes. To sustain their needs, these countries need to focus on water allocation strategies that maximize the economic and social return of limited water resources, and at the same time enhance the water productivity of all sectors. In this endeavour, special attention is required on issues of equity in access to water and social impact of water allocation policies (6). In most countries, agriculture dominates the demand for water. In many cases irrigated agriculture has been a major engine for economic growth and poverty reduction. At the same time, poor communities tend to suffer the greatest health burden from inadequate water supplies and as result of ill-health are unable to move out of a cycle of poverty and disease. Thus, the growing scarcity and competition for water stands as a major threat to future advances in poverty alleviation, in particular in rural areas. In semi-arid regions, an increasing number of the rural poor are coming to see entitlement and access to water for food production and for domestic purposes as a more critical problem than access to primary health care and education (6).

Water scarcity - Reasons
There are several reasons for water scarcity Excessive withdrawal from surface waters: The Aral Sea in the former Soviet Union, who has shrunk to less than half of ifs original size, due to the diversion of the main contributing rivers. Source: (4). 1957 1984 1993 2000 2001 Excessive withdrawal from surface waters: A larger amount of water is withdrawn than the amount that is replenished by rainfall, inflow from rivers, or springs. Probably the most striking example of an excessive withdrawal is the Aral Sea in the former Soviet Union, who has shrunk to less than half of ifs original size. This was caused primarily by the diversion of the Amu Dar‘ya and Syr Dar‘ya rivers to irrigate water-intensive cotton and rice crops in an arid climate. This irrigation has also lead to salinisation of large areas.

Water Scarcity - Salinisation
Salinisation is a general term for all processes which accumulate salts in soil. It takes place mainly in arid climates.  high evaporation  insufficient rainfall, water (from rainfall or irrigation) Water ascents, dissolved salts are precipitated and accumulate at the soil surface. Salt accumulation M. Kropac Salinisation is a general term for all processes which accumulate salts in soil. It takes place mainly in arid climates. Due to a high evaporation and insufficient rainfall, water (from rainfall or irrigation) does not seep downwards, but groundwater rather ascents through capillaries. The dissolved salts are precipitated and accumulate at the soil surface. The problem is most common in irrigation agriculture, in which water is brought in to supply the needs of crops in an area with insufficient rainfall. There, the salinisation most commonly results from inadequate drainage of the irrigated land; because the water cannot flow freely, it evaporates, and the salts dissolved in the water are left on the surface of the soil. Even though the water does not contain a large concentration of dissolved salts, the accumulation over the years can be significant enough to make the soil unsuitable for crop production. Effective drainage can solve the problem; in many cases, drainage canals must be constructed and drainage tiles must be laid beneath the surface of the soil, which might not be possible for large-scale irrigated areas. Drainage also requires the availability of an excess of water to flush the salts from the surface soil. In certain heavy soils with poor drainage, this problem can be quite severe; for example, large areas of formerly irrigated land in the Indus basin, in the Tigris–Euphrates region, in the Nile Basin, and in the western United States have been seriously damaged by salinisation. Source: (34)

Water scarcity - Reasons
There are several reasons for water scarcity Excessive withdrawal of water from underground aquifers: Along many coasts of the world, excessive fresh water abstraction has allowed sea water to enter aquifers thereby making the water so saline that it is unfit for human use (see following slides on groundwater depletion) (5).  interface between freshwater and brackish water will move inland. Excessive withdrawal of water from underground aquifers: Along many coasts of the world, excessive fresh water abstraction has allowed sea water to enter aquifers thereby making the water so saline that it is unfit for human use (see following slides on groundwater depletion). As a consequence of sea level rise, a calculable effect on water tables is that the interface between freshwater and brackish water will move inland, which may have significant impacts on the development and the life of people in coastal regions and in small islands (5). Near Chennai, India, the saltwater has intruded almost 20 m inland since 1972 and causes the water from the traditional dugwells to be brackish. Pollution of fresh water resources: Fresh water bodies have a limited capacity to process the pollutant charges of the effluents from expanding urban, industrial and agricultural uses. Water quality degradation can be one of the main causes of water scarcity (6). Inefficient use of freshwater: Poor irrigation practices, leakage in water delivery systems, inefficient use by industry and excessive consumption by individuals can all contribute to water stress (1).

Water Scarcity – Salt Water Intrusion into Groundwater
Salt attack: Seawater is increasingly infiltrating the drained well fields north of Chennai Distance from the sea coast in m Source: (32) Saltwater intrusion: Brackish groundwater is a serious problem in many regions of the world. Intrusion of seawater into freshwater aquifers occurs along most of the built-up coastal areas. More than half of the world’s population lives inside a 60km wide coastal zone where very intensive building development is taking place, and almost all the megacities of the world are inside the coastal zone. Along large coastal areas, seawater has already intruded a long way into the freshwater reservoirs. This is the case in e.g. India, Taiwan, Bangladesh, Thailand, the Mediterranean countries and the Netherlands. Saltwater intrusions as far a away as 5-6 km from the coast has been reported. The cause is generally a large scale overabstraction of fresh groundwater, much greater than what can be recharged The red lines mark the distance from the sea to which saltwater had intruded in the respective years: In less than 30 years, the seawater has intruded inwards for almost 20 m (32).

Water scarcity – Reasons & Consequences
There are several reasons for water scarcity Pollution of fresh water resources: Limited absorbing capacity Water quality degradation = one of the main causes of water scarcity. Inefficient use of freshwater: Poor irrigation practices, leakage in water delivery systems, inefficient use by industry and excessive consumption (6). Consequences include: Inability to sustain ecosystems integrity. Further disturbance and degradation of 'natural' systems. Conflict potential: Additionally, many water resources are shared by two or more countries  possible water conflicts (6). Ecosystem use: Flows of water are also essential to the viability of all ecosystems. Unsustainable levels of extraction of water for other uses diminish the total available to maintain ecosystems integrity. This inevitably leads to the further disturbance and degradation of 'natural' systems and has profound impacts upon the future availability of water resources (6). Conflict potential: Additionally, many water resources are shared by two or more countries. Currently there are 263 river basins that are shared by two or more nations and that are home for roughly 40 % of the global population. In the majority of cases, the institutional arrangements needed to regulate equity of resource use are weak or missing (6). It is expected that conflict over these more and more scarce water resources will be intensified in the future – they could even be one of the major reasons for conflict.

Groundwater - Reserves
Groundwater is the main source of freshwater on earth. Underground water reservoirs often created under different climatic conditions in prehistoric times (fossil groundwater). These reservoirs can now also be located in arid or semi-arid areas  today insufficient recharge. Accessible Freshwater Of the 2.5 % which are freshwater on earth, nearly 70 % is not accessible because it is permanently frozen in the ice sheets and glaciers in the Antarctic, Greenland and in mountainous areas. Out of the remaining 31%, the largest freshwater reserves are located in large underground reservoirs (5,8), called aquifers. Groundwater is thus the main source of freshwater on earth. Often, theses underground water reservoirs have been created under different climatic conditions in prehistoric times (fossil groundwater). These reservoirs can now also be located in arid or semi-arid areas, where they are often not sufficiently recharged through the infiltration of rainwater and excessive runoff any more. Groundwater is protected against pollution only up to a certain degree – leakage and seepage from cesspools and other sources endanger groundwater reserves in many parts of the world. = only 1/3 of the total 2.5 % ! Source: (1)

Groundwater – Aquifers
An aquifer is a rock layer that contains water and releases it in appreciable amounts. The rock contains water-filled pore spaces, and, when the spaces are connected, the water is able to flow through the matrix of the rock. An aquifer also may be called a water-bearing stratum, lens, or zone. There are confined and unconfined aquifers (14). Source: (31) An aquifer is a rock layer that contains water and releases it in appreciable amounts. The rock contains water-filled pore spaces, and, when the spaces are connected, the water is able to flow through the matrix of the rock. An aquifer also may be called a water-bearing stratum, lens, or zone. A confined aquifer is a water-bearing stratum that is confined or overlain by a rock layer that does not transmit water in any appreciable amount or that is impermeable. There probably are few truly confined aquifers, because tests have shown that the confining strata, or layers, although they do not readily transmit water, over a period of time contribute large quantities of water by slow leakage to supplement production from the principal aquifer. A groundwater aquifer is said to be unconfined when its upper surface (water table) is open to the atmosphere through permeable material. As opposed to a confined aquifer, the water table in an unconfined aquifer system has no overlying impervious rock layer to separate it from the atmosphere (14).

Groundwater - Depletion
Source: Down to Earth Groundwater depletion: Excessive use  lowering of groundwater table Delhi: - 20 m since 1960 (9). Similar in Mexico City, Bangkok, Manila, Beijing, Madras and Shanghai  severe consequences: dugwells without water (1). Technical innovations and access to them also in developing countries as well have made it possible to drill deeper and deeper borewells and to use stronger and more efficient pumps (5). Groundwater depletion: Due to excessive use of groundwater from aquifers, the groundwater table has been lowered significantly in many parts of the world. In Delhi alone, the groundwater table fell 20 meters since 1960 (9). Mexico City, Bangkok, Manila, Beijing, Madras and Shanghai also have experienced aquifer drops between 10 and 50 m (1). This is of severe consequences not only for all those who depend on borewells for their water supply, but has for instance caused a lowering of whole blocks and to subsequent subsidence or destabilisation of houses and whole blocks in certain areas of Mexico City. Rapid expansion in groundwater exploitation occurred between 1950 and 1975 in many industrialized nations, and between 1970 and 1990 in most parts of the developing world (5), due to increased needs of the industry on one hand, and population growth as well as changed life habits on the other hand. Technical innovations and access to them also in developing countries as well have made it possible to drill deeper and deeper borewells and to use stronger and more efficient pumps. The case of India is worthy of specific mention, since groundwater directly supplies about 80 % of domestic water supply in rural areas, with some 2.8 to 3.0 million hand-pump boreholes having been constructed over the past thirty years. Further, some 244 km3/year are currently estimated to be pumped for irrigation from about 15–17 million motorized dugwells and tubewells, with as much as 70 % of national agricultural production being supported by groundwater (5). But also Manila is worth mentioning. Near Manila the groundwater level has dropped by 50 – 80 m (1).

Groundwater – Depletion
Groundwater Depletion can also be caused by Deforestation: Deforestation  soil degradation and loss of infiltration capacity  higher runoff. Lower evapotranspiration  lower atmospheric humidity and moisture convergence  reduced cloud formation an rainfall (16). Groundwater Contamination: It takes longer for groundwater than surface water to be contaminated. But once groundwater has become contaminated, it is very difficult to clean it again, since the turnover rate is extremely slow (17).

industrial organic substances,
Water Pollution SIWI The current dealing with waste water is fatal: Put shortly, it means mixing different contaminants and waste streams, relying on dilution and causing degradation (10). The most frequent sources of pollution are human waste, industrial wastes and chemicals, and agricultural pesticides and fertilizers. Key forms of pollution include faecal coliforms, industrial organic substances, acidifying substances from mining aquifers and atmospheric emissions heavy metals from industry, ammonia, nitrate and phosphate pollution from agriculture, pesticide residues (agriculture), sediments from human-induced erosion to rivers, lakes and reservoirs salinisation (5).

Water Pollution – The River Pollution Syndromes
SIWI Build up of pollutants in a water body with limited water exchange. The outcome of all interactions by which water gets polluted has been described as river syndromes: salinisation chemical contamination, encompassing oxygen depletion, metals and agrochemicals acidification involving decrease of pH eutrophication microbial contamination related to high faecal coli and related pathogens radionuclide contamination The water crisis is increasing steadily in the developing world. A “hydrocide”, where downstream stakeholders are left increasingly without usable water, is an approaching reality in these countries (19). Action is urgent before the water supply and quality destruction makes it impossible to get out of the poverty trap in developing countries. The scale of water pollution is huge; persistent pollutants (PCB, DDT, dioxin and hundreds of others, many of them hormone disruptors) might spread through water-related feedbacks to influence human health through i.e.. drinking water and food (20). This is aggravated through the fact that persistent pollutants can be magnified million of times in the food web: Humans are feeding at the top of the food web, and pollutants accumulate over time in body fat of living creatures. Male sperm counts have diminished dramatically since the 1940s and women transfer pollutants stored for many decades to their foetuses/children during gestation and breast feeding (21). Source: (13) SIWI

++ The River Pollution Syndromes
Slow economic development Fast economic development Water pollution syndromes look quite different in regions with slow economic development (A) as opposed to regions with rapid development where many pollution problems tend to coincide in time (B). As for Southwestern Europe, the impacts from Roman mining 2000 years ago accelerated with the industrial revolution. Organic and faecal pollution rose with population growth. More recent issues are eutrophication, nitrate pollution and the most recent pollution by PCBs (chemicals) and pesticides. In fast developing regions in parts of Africa, South America and Asia, however, the water pollution issues almost coincide in time, severely complicating efforts of water pollution abatement. In poor countries, medium and small-scale industry poses severe problems: they are fundamental to raising incomes, but too small to manage pollution control techniques developed in the West. In India alone, they generate 40 percent of the total industrial wastewaters, and generate upstream- downstream conflicts in many rivers (13). Source: (13) In regions with slow economic development, organic and faecal pollution rose with population growth. More recent issues are eutrophication and chemical pollution. In fast developing regions in parts of Africa, South America and Asia, however, the water pollution issues almost coincide in time, severely complicating efforts of water pollution abatement.

Water Pollution M. Kropac “India's rivers, especially the smaller ones, have all turned into toxic streams. And even the big ones like the Ganga are far from pure. The assault on India's rivers - from population growth, agricultural modernization, urbanization and industrialization - is enormous and growing by the day…. Most Indian cities get a large part of their drinking water from rivers. This entire life stands threatened.” Source: (33)

Water Basics: Basic Water Needs
Source: (13) 50 litres of water per day per person is the recommended minimum for household use (basic water requirements) including drinking water for survival (min: 5l/person/day, including cooking water) water for human hygiene, water for sanitation services modest household needs for preparing food Up to 70 times as much can be needed to meet the consumptive water use for producing a projected human diet for one person based on a kcal consumption of 3000 kcal/day, depending on the composition (11). production of meat calories needs at least 8 times more water than that of vegetable calories (1). A minimum water requirement for human survival under typical temperate climates with normal activity can be set at 3 litres per day. Given that substantial populations live in tropical and subtropical climates, it is necessary to increase this minimum slightly, to about 5 l/p/d, or just under two cubic meters per person per year (23). The figure recommended by the UN does not differ vastly: it suggests „a minimum annual per capita water requirement of 1,700 m3 of drinking water necessary for active and healthy life for their people“, witch is equivalent to 4.65 l/p/d (5). Still, these figures account only for the absolute minimal water requirement for survival. The basic water requirements including domestic needs is about 50 l per person per day, This covers drinking, basic sanitation services including water for handwashing, human hygiene such as bathing, clothes washing, and food preparation (23). However, it must be kept in mind that the minimum amount of water required to meet basic needs vary greatly depending upon each country or region and depending on what is defined as basic needs and what techniques and technologies are used for meeting them.

Water Basics: Basic Water Needs
The adjacent chart shows the wide variation in average per capita domestic consumption from different nations. As the graph shows, people in Mali have to live with an amount of 10l per person/day, whereas people in the USA have almost 590l per day and person at their disposal. These figures do not include water for food production, but just show the household use. Source: (1) The adjacent chart shows the wide variation in average per capita domestic consumption from different nations.

END OF MODULE M1-2 seecon FOR FURTHER READINGS REFER TO M1-2 TUTORIAL
K. Conradin (1&3) M. Kropac (2&4) END OF MODULE M1-2 FOR FURTHER READINGS REFER TO M1-2 TUTORIAL Katharina Conradin, seecon international Dr. Johannes Heeb, International Ecological Engineering Society & seecon international Prof. Dr. Petter Jenssen, Department of Mathematical Sciences and Technology, Norwegian University of Life Sciences Dr. Ken Gnanakan, ACTS Bangalore, India © 2006 Click here to go to the references part BACK TO THE MAIN MENU seecon International gmbh ACTS Agriculture -Crafts - Trades - Studies

++ References World Business for Sustainable Development. Water: Facts and Trends. See (accessed ) SEI Stockholm Environment Institute (2005): Sustainable Pathways to attain the Millennium Development Goals. Assessing the Key Role of Water, Energy and Sanitation. With contribution from the Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Can be downloaded from: UN-Water Thematic Initiatives: Coping with water scarcity – a strategic issue and priority for system-wide action. ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/aglw/docs/waterscarcity.pdf (accessed ) T.S. SUBRAMANIAN: Distress in the Delta. Frontline Magazine, Volume 20 - Issue 21, October , See (accessed ) UNESCO/World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2003): Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations World Water Development Report. WHO: Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. UNEP: Vital Water Graphics: (accessed ) Johannson, B. & Sellberg, B. (2005): Groundwater under threat. Formas Publication (Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning). Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: (accessed ) Malmer, A. (2005): Groundwater and deforestation – do we need the trees? In: Johannson, B. & Sellberg, B. (2005): Groundwater under threat. Formas Publication (Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning). Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: (accessed ) KRAFFT, T., WOLF, T. & AGGRAVAL, S. (2003): A new Urban Penalty? Environmental and Health Risks in Delhi. – In: Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen 4: Falkenmark, M., in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: (accessed ) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: IPCC Second Assessment Synthesis of Scientific-Technical Information relevant to interpreting Article 2 of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. See: (accessed ) World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2005): Water for People, Water for Life. Executive Summary. Unesco, Berghahn. Available at: (Accessed )

++ References Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: Aquifer. (Accessed ) Dr. Sven Jonasson (2005): Groundwater: Supply and protection. Unpublished Power-Point Presentation. Geo Logic AB / Dept. of Mathematical Sciences and Technology. The Norwegian University of Life Sciences. Ås, Sweden. Shiklomanov, I.-A. Forthcoming. World Water Resources at the Beginning of the 21st Century. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. In: UNESCO/World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2003): Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations World Water Development Report. Malmer, A. (2005): Groundwater and deforestation – do we need the trees? In: Johannson, B. & Sellberg, B. (2005): Groundwater under threat. Formas Publication (Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning). Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: (accessed ) Meybeck, M. (2004): The Global Change of Continental Aquatic Systems: Dominant Impacts of Human Activities.” Proceedings of the 2003 Stockholm Water Symposium. London: International Water Association Publishing. Quoted in: Falkenmark, M., in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: (accessed ) Lundqvist, J.: How to Avert the Threatening Hydrocide. Proceedings of the 1998 Stockholm Water Symposium. Stockholm: Stockholm International Water Institute. Quoted in: Falkenmark, M., in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: (accessed ) Simonovic, S.P “Global Water Dynamics: Issues for the 21st Century.” Proceedings of the 2001 Stockholm Water Symposium. London: International Water Association Publishing. Quoted in: Falkenmark, M., in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: (accessed ) Colburn, T., D. Dumanoski, and J.P. Myers. (1997): Our Stolen Future: Are We Threatening Our Fertility, Intelligence, and Survival? New York: Penguin Books USA. Quoted in: Falkenmark, M., in co-operation with the Symposium Scientific Programme Committee (2005): Towards Hydrosolidarity: Ample Opportunities for human ingenuity. Fifteen-Year Message from the Stockholm Water Symposia. Stockholm International Water Institute. Stockholm, Sweden. Can be accessed at: (accessed ) BUWAL Bundesamt für Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft (2005): (accessed ) Gleick, P. H. (1996): Basic Water Requirements for Human Activities: Meeting Basic Needs. Pacific Institute for Studies in Development, Environment, and Security. - In: Water International, 21/ (accessed ) UN Statistics Division: (accessed ) Murray. C.J.L. & Lopez, A. D. (1996): Global Burden of disease.

++ References Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: The Green Revolution. (Accessed ) Leser, H. (Ed.) (1997): Wörterbuch allgemeine Geographie. 13th, fully revised edition, Mai München, Braunschweig (Germany). Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: Salinisation of Soil. (Accessed ) Map prepared for the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) by the Centre for Environmental Research, University of Kassel, For the water stress calculation: data from WaterGAP Version 2.1.D; Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000; Raskin et al., For the megacities: UN, In: UNESCO/World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2003): Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations World Water Development Report. WHO: Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: Secondary Treatment. (Accessed ) Scottish Environment Protection Agency SEPA (2005): Groundwater Principles. Available at: (Accessed ) Srinivasan, R K & Kozhisseri, D. (2005): Urban Water – Emergency. In: Down to Earth on Water, Ed. Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, India CSE (Centre for Science and the Environment) (1999): The Citizen's Fifth Report New Delhi, India. In: UNESCO/World Water Assessment Programme WWAP (2003): Water for People, Water for Life. The United Nations World Water Development Report. WHO: Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report.

++ Glossary: Access to an improved water source
“Access to improved water sources refers to the percentage of population who use any of the following types of water supply for drinking: household connection, public standpipe, borehole, protected dug well, protected spring, rainwater collection. Improved water sources do not include: unprotected well, unprotected spring, rivers or ponds, vendor-provided water, bottled water (due to limitations in the potential quantity, not quality, of the water), tanker truck water. Drinking water is defined as the water used for normal domestic purposes, including consumption and hygiene. Not all people that have 21 access to improve sources actually used them. Consequently, the primary indicator used to monitor progress in safe drinking water is the “use” of improved water sources .”(24) IMPROVED WATER SOURCE

++ Glossary: Access to improved sanitation facilities
“The definition of basic sanitation would encompass critical components of what sanitation services should aim for: privacy, dignity, cleanliness and a healthy environment. From a monitoring point of view, however, such characteristics are difficult to measure. Access to improved sanitation facilities refers to the percentage of the population with access to: facilities connected to a public sewer or a septic system, poor-flush latrines, simple pit or ventilated improved pit latrines. These kinds of latrines are likely to be adequate, provided that they are not public or shared while open pit latrine and bucket latrine are considered “unimproved” sanitation facilities. Not all people that have access to improved sanitation facilities actually used them. Consequently, the primary indicator used to monitor progress in sanitation is the “use” of improved basic sanitation.” (24) IMPROVED SANITATION FACILITIES

++ Glossary: Water Scarcity
Water scarcity is defined by the UN as „the point at which the aggregate impact of all users impinges on the supply or quality of water under prevailing institutional arrangements to the extent that the demand by all sectors, including the environment, cannot be fully satisfied.” (3) WATER SCARCITY

++ Glossary: Evapotranspiration
“Liquid water is converted to water vapour by evapotranspiration as vegetation extracts water from the soil and emits it through stoma (pores in the leave surface) on the leaves and by evaporation directly from the surface of the soil when water from below is diffused upward. Evaporation occurs at the surface of water bodies at a rate inversely proportional to the relative humidity just above the surface. Evaporation is rapid in dry air but much slower when the lowest levels of the atmosphere are almost saturated. Evaporation from soil is dependent on the rate at which moisture is supplied by capillary suction within the soil, while evapotranspiration is dependent on the water available to plants within the root zone and whether or not the stoma are open on the leaf surfaces. Water that evaporates and evapotranspires into the atmosphere is often transported long distances over the Earth before it is precipitated again.” (25) EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

++ Glossary: Megacities
Megacity is a general term for large cities together with their suburbs or recognized metropolitan areas with a total population of exceeding eight million. Depending on the respective author, the population threshold lies at five, ten or 12 million. Whereas the term city may denote importance, population size or legal status of a place, the term megacity concentrates on size only. Examples for megacities include for instance Mexico-City, Karachi, Tokyo, Mumbai and others. MEGACITIES

++ Glossary: Eutrophication
“Eutrophication is gradual increase in the concentration of phosphorus, nitrogen, and other plant nutrients in an aquatic ecosystem such as a lake, pond, a river etc. The productivity or fertility of such an ecosystem increases as the amount of organic material that can be broken down into nutrients increases. This material enters the ecosystem primarily by runoff from land that carries debris and products of the reproduction and death of terrestrial organisms, as well as artificial or organic fertiliser. Blooms, or great concentrations of algae and microscopic organisms, often develop on the surface, preventing the light penetration and oxygen absorption necessary for underwater life. In extreme cases, the aquatic life in this waterbody can perish due to a lack of oxygen. Some species are also not adapted to such high concentration of nutrients and decay due to this.” (30) EUTROPHICATION

++ Glossary: Salinisation
Salinisation is a general term for all processes which accumulate salts in soil. It takes place mainly in arid climates. Due to a high evaporation and insufficient rainfall, water (from rainfall or irrigation) does not seep downwards, but groundwater rather ascents through capillaries. The dissolved salts are precipitated and accumulate at the soil surface. “The problem is most common in irrigation agriculture, in which water is brought in to supply the needs of crops in an area with insufficient rainfall. There, the salinisation most commonly results from inadequate drainage of the irrigated land; because the water cannot flow freely, it evaporates, and the salts dissolved in the water are left on the surface of the soil. Even though the water does not contain a large concentration of dissolved salts, the accumulation over the years can be significant enough to make the soil unsuitable for crop production. Effective drainage can solve the problem; in many cases, drainage canals must be constructed and drainage tiles must be laid beneath the surface of the soil, which might not be possible for large-scale irrigated areas. Drainage also requires the availability of an excess of water to flush the salts from the surface soil. In certain heavy soils with poor drainage, this problem can be quite severe; for example, large areas of formerly irrigated land in the Indus basin, in the Tigris–Euphrates region, in the Nile Basin, and in the western United States have been seriously damaged by salinisation.” (28) SALINISATION

++ Glossary: Green Revolution
“The introduction into developing countries of new strains of wheat and rice was a major aspect of what became known as the Green Revolution. Given adequate water and ample amounts of the required chemical fertilizers and pesticides, these varieties have resulted in significantly higher yields. Poorer farmers, however, often have not been able to provide the required growing conditions and therefore have obtained even lower yields with “improved” grains than they had gotten with the older strains that were better adapted to local conditions and that had some resistance to pests and diseases. Where chemicals are used, concern has been voiced about their cost—since they generally must be imported—and about their potentially harmful effects on the environment.” (26) GREEN REVOLUTION

++ Glossary: Aquifer In hydrology, an aquifer is a rock layer that contains water and releases it in appreciable amounts. The rock contains water-filled pore spaces, and, when the spaces are connected, the water is able to flow through the matrix of the rock. An aquifer also may be called a water-bearing stratum, lens, or zone. A confined aquifer is a water-bearing stratum that is confined or overlain by a rock layer that does not transmit water in any appreciable amount or that is impermeable. There probably are few truly confined aquifers, because tests have shown that the confining strata, or layers, although they do not readily transmit water, over a period of time contribute large quantities of water by slow leakage to supplement production from the principal aquifer. A groundwater aquifer is said to be unconfined when its upper surface (water table) is open to the atmosphere through permeable material. As opposed to a confined aquifer, the water table in an unconfined aquifer system has no overlying impervious rock layer to separate it from the atmosphere (27, 28). AQUIFER

++ Abbreviations MDG Millennium Development Goals
PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyls (Chemical Substance) UN United Nations UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development WHO World Health Organization WWAP UN World Water Assessment Programme

M1: Water and Sanitation in Regard to the Millennium Development Goals

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M1: Water and Sanitation in Regard to the Millennium Development Goals

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