1. Encoding  Storage  Retrieval Encoding: Putting information into memory – –previous lectures: elaborative encoding, levels of processing, mnemonics… Storage: Keeping information in memory – –consolidation Retrieval: Recovering information from memory – –Forgetting: failure to retrieve vs. nothing to retrieve Topics for today: forgetting, flashbulb memories, retrieval cues, encoding specificity principle…

2. prior knowledge new information current context encoding strategies memory “trace” retrieval cuescurrent context retrieval strategies remembering bi-directional encoding retrieval

3. Then questioned again after... 6 weeks one year how were you informed?1.00.72 what time of day was it?.92.25 what were you doing?.92.50 who were you with?.94.83 what was your first thought?.83.44 most vivid event from prior Saturday (control).89.11 Exceptional Retrieval: “FLASHBULB” MEMORIES (Christiansen, 1989) Swedish students interviewed within 24 hours of the assassination of Olof Palme, the Prime Minister of Sweden (1969-1986).

4. Ebbinghaus (1885): forgetting of list of nonsense syllables Bahrick & Phelphs (1987): forgetting of Spanish learned in college THE FORGETTING FUNCTION Memory is not permanent: we do forget! Forgetting: Is information lost forever???

5. RECOVERY FROM “CONCUSSION AMNESIA” time of accident hours later yrs mo day days.. weeks.. Retrograde Amnesia - can be severe - worse for recent events - almost complete recovery Anterograde Amnesia - mild to moderate - worse for events just after trauma - “blank periods” may remain ??????? ??? ? ?? ? ?? ? ? ?? ?

6. Retrieval from LTM: Retrieval Cues Retrieval cues in everyday life Experiment by Tulving & Pearlstone (1966) Study Phase: – –words from specific categories categories: e.g., birds, furniture, professions words presented: e.g., pigeon (category: bird), etc. Test Phase – –free recall: 40% – –cued recall (names of categories provided at test): 75% Provided word: bird Correct response: pigeon

7. The results for each group are on the right. Tulving and Pearlstone (1966)

8. The Effects of Context: The Effects of Context: Encoding Specificity Principle How an event is encoded determines the effectiveness of various retrieval cues (Tulving, 1972). Memory will be best if cues/context at study and test are the same Similar terms: Similar terms: Context-dependent memory Context-dependent memory Transfer-appropriate processing Transfer-appropriate processing

9. What do we mean by context??? Physical: –Location (e.g., study for an exam in the room where exam is taken). Physiological/ Psychological: –Effects of alcohol and marijuana –Mood –Stress –Way of encoding (pair-associate or list)

10. Godden & Baddeley (1975) Godden & Baddeley (1975) Encoding Specificity Principle Study Phase: –deep-sea divers learn 40 unrelated words either on land, or 20 feet under the sea. Test Phase: – –Tested their recall either on land or underwater

11. Each test condition are indicated by the bar directly underneath that condition. * (asterisks): study and test conditions matched.. Godden and Baddeley (1975) “diving” experiment.

12. Godden & Baddeley (1975) Results: –Better recall when contexts –Better recall when contexts matched

13. Grant et al.’s (1998) “studying” experiment

14. Eich and Metcalfe’s (1989) “mood” experiment.

15. Task: free recall of word lists Study in..Test in.. % recalled officeoffice lablab 27% officelab laboffice20% (Smith, Glenberg & Bjork, 1978)

16. Mood congruence –Recall is better if material being learned “matches” the learner’s present mood –These effects are very consistent Mood-state dependence –Recall is better when mood at retrieval “matches” mood during encoding –Example of encoding specificity How Emotions and Mood Influence Memory