1. Chapter 9 Motivation and Emotion

2. Motivation involves goal-directed behavior (intentional, not random)
Defining Motivation
Motivation involves goal-directed behavior (intentional, not random)
There are a number of different theories that attempt to explain goal-directed behavior.
Drive theories emphasize the importance of reducing physiological tension as a motivator of behavior (think “we eat because we feel hungry”)
Incentive theories emphasize the importance of external reward in motivation behaviors.
Evolutionary theories assert that human motives are products of evolutionary processes.

3. The Motivation of Hunger and Eating: Biological Factors
In the early 1900’s, 1 (Full name) and Washburn hypothesized that there is an association between 2 (2 words) and the experience of 3 ; However we know now that people who have their stomachs removed still experience hunger. This realization led to more complicated theories focusing on the brain, 4 (3 words) and digestive factors, and hormones.
Research in the 40’s and 50’s showed that the hypothalamus, particularly two areas called the 5 (2 words) (LH) and the 6 (2 words) of the hypothalamus (VMH), are important in hunger. The LH was thought to be the “ 7 center”, while the VMH was thought to control the ability to recognize 8 (fullness). Subsequent research indicated that the “dual centered model” was an oversimplified picture, although the LH and VMH are part of the hunger circuit, they are not the key elements.
The 9 nucleus of the hypothalamus has recently been implicated as another influential part of the hunger circuit.

4. The Motivation of Hunger and Eating: Biological Factors 2
Other research has focused on the role of blood glucose and digestive regulation on hunger. Manipulations that 10 when blood glucose level can 11 hunger (and vice versa).
12 (name) theory proposed that fluctuations in blood glucose level are monitored in the brain by 13 – neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid. It appears likely that hunger is regulated , in part, through glucostatic mechanisms.
Hormones circulating in the blood also appear to be related to hunger. Insulin, secreted by the pancreas, must be present for cells to use blood glucose. Normal secretion of insulin is associated with 14 hunger. The mere sight and 15 of food has been shown to increase 16 secretion.
Recently, a “new” hormone, 17 , has been discovered to be released from fat cells into the bloodstream. Leptin provides the hypothalamus with information about the body’s 18 stores in the body. When fat stores are high feeling of hunger diminish.

5. The Motivation of Hunger and Eating: Environmental Factors
Clearly, hunger is related to biology; however, it is also regulated by environmental factors like: (1) the availability/ palatability of food; (2) 19 (2 words) & habits; and (3) stress.
Hunger can also be triggered by exposure to environmental cues that have been associated with 20 .(such as appearance or odor of food, effort required to eat a particular food, etc). Research shows that these external cues influence eating behavior to some extent, beyond biological hunger.
Observational learning appears to play a part in what we like to eat. To a large degree food preferences are a matter of Studies show that people like foods that are familiar to them. (Even, dog meat is a delicacy in some parts of the world!) Learning also appears to influence when and how much people eat.
Finally, studies have show that 22 (arousal) leads to 23 eating with many people. Some research suggests that stress induced eating is especially common among 24 dieters.

6. The Human Sexual Response
William Masters and Virginia Johnson conducted groundbreaking research in the 1960s using 25 recording devices to monitor the 26 changes of volunteers engaging in sexual activity. They outlined 27 (#) stages in the sexual response cycle.
The excitement phase is the initial arousal, which escalates rapidly. Muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure 28 quickly. Also 29 , the engorgement of blood vessels occurs in the genitals, occurs.
The plateau phase occurs when physiological arousal continues to build, but at a 30 pace.
The orgasm phase occurs when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the 31 area. The subjective experience of orgasm is very similar for men and women, although women can more than 32 orgasm in a brief period of time. On the other hand, they are more likely to engage in intercourse without experiencing an orgasm.
The resolution phase is characterized by sexual arousal that gradually Men experience a refractory period after orgasm, when they are largely 34 to further stimulation. This may last from a few minutes to a few hours and 35 with age.

7. The Mystery of Sexual Orientation
36 (2 words) refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex (homosexuality), the other sex (heterosexuality), or either sex (bisexuality).
Kinsey and others have concluded that homosexuality and heterosexuality are 37 (2 words) on a continuum.
Data on the prevalence of homosexuality suggests that 38 ( # range)% of the population could reasonably characterized as homosexual.
Many environmental theories explaining homosexuality have been put forth historically.
Freud held that a person must identify with a strong same sexed parent or a homosexual orientation may develop.
39 theorists assert that homosexuality is a learned preference acquired when same-sex stimuli hve been paired with sexual arousal (learned through conditioning.)
Extensive research have 40 to support either theory.
What has been found is that most men and women with homosexual orientations can trace their leanings back to early childhood, suggesting that the roots of homosexuality are more than environmental.

8. Motivation
42 motivation involves the need to excel, especially in competition with others. This motive involves the need to master _43_ challenges and meet 44 standards of excellence.
People who are relatively high in the need for achievement work harder and more persistently, they tend to 45 gratification well and to pursue competitive careers.
Achievement (and affiliative) motivational needs are generally measured using the 46 (3 words), a projective test which requires a subject to write or tell stories about what is happening in pictures of people in ambiguous scenes.
47 factors have been shown to influence achievement strivings, causing it to increase when the probability of success and the incentive value of success are high. When the probability and incentive values are weighed together, 48 challenging tasks seem to offer the best value.

9. The Elements of Emotional Experience
The 49 component of emotion involves subjective conscious experience that have an evaluative aspect…people’s 50 appraisals of events are key determinants in emotional experience.
Much of the physiological arousal associated with emotion occurs through the actions of the 51 nervous system. This nervous system is responsible for the highly emotional 52 -or-flight response. The involuntary nature of autonomic response is the reason that measures of autonomic activity like the GSR ( 53 (3 words)) or polygraph can be used to detect whether someone is uncomfortable with what they are telling you (although polygraph measures are not all that accurate).
In the brain, the limbic system is the emotional “neural circuit”, with a particularly central role played by a structure called the 54 .
Behaviorally, emotions are expressed through body language and facial expressions. Research indicates considerable cross-cultural similarities in the ability to differentiate facial expressions of emotion. Cross-cultural similarities have also been found in the cognitive and behavioral components, although display rules, or norms for regulating appropriate expression of emotion vary from culture to culture.

10. Theories of Emotion
The 55(2 words) theory of emotion holds that you see a snake, your pulse races, and you feel afraid because your pulse is racing (emphasis on the physiological determinants of emotion).
The 56 (2 words) theory holds that you see a snake, the information is sent to the thalamus, which relays the signals simultaneously to the cortex and to the autonomic nervous system.
According to Schacter & Singer, the experiences of emotion depends on 57 (2 words) first, then the cognitive 58 of that arousal.
Darwin viewed emotions as a product of 59 that evolved because they had 60 value.
Evolutionary theories of emotion assume that emotions are 61 reactions that require little cognitive interpretation. Robert Plutchik (1984, 1993) has devised a model of how primary emotions blend together to form secondary emotions.

11. Happiness
Research on happiness indicates that commonsense notions about what makes people happy are largely incorrect.
Income (money), 62 , parenthood, intelligence, and attractiveness are largely uncorrelated with happiness (do not predict).
Physical health, good social relationships and , 63 , are modestly correlated with happiness.
Love, marriage, work satisfaction, and 64 are the only factors shown to be strongly predictive of happiness.
Research indicates that 65 feelings rather than 66 reality is what is important in deciding happiness.