1. Two cities… Both have big bridges… Otherwise, not much else in common.

2. Model of Memory Turning now to Long-Term Memory Sensory Signals Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory ATTENTION REHEARSAL RETRIEVAL

3. When You Don’t Remember Two reasons why you don’t remember:

4. When You Don’t Remember Two reasons why you don’t remember: Unavailable –It wasn’t successfully encoded - something went wrong while you were studying

5. When You Don’t Remember Two reasons why you don’t remember: Unavailable –It wasn’t successfully encoded - something went wrong while you were studying Inaccessible –memory is stored but cannot be retrieved, perhaps because appropriate connections aren’t being made

6. Implicit and Explicit Memory Are all memories explicit? Is all information stored in the brain subject to conscious scrutiny?

7. Implicit and Explicit Memory Are all memories explicit? Is all information stored in the brain subject to conscious scrutiny? Implicit Memory refers to encoded memories that are not part of the “contents” of awareness

8. Implicit and Explicit Memory How can we know whether memory is stored/recalled implicitly or explicitly?

9. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words:

10. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words: Free Recall - subjects can be asked to simply recall and report as many items as possible - these items are accessible as explicit memory

11. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words: Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete a word stem with any word that comes to mind after reading a list of words (no mention of testing memory!) __ack

12. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words: Implicit Recall - subjects can be asked to complete a word stem with any word that comes to mind after reading a list of words (no mention of testing memory!) But how do you know that information is stored/recalled implicitly? Couldn’t it be explicit?

13. Implicit Memory Consider the following distinction in recalling items from a list of words: Twist - require subject to complete stem with a word that wasn’t on the list - if a word from the list is used preferentially, it was remembered implicitly

14. Implicit Memory Consider the implications regarding the nature of consciousness and the connection between neural activity and awareness

15. Implicit Memory Consider the implications regarding the nature of consciousness and the connection between neural activity and awareness Not all of the activity in your brain generates experience - some is “sub”conscious or non-conscious

16. Recalling Episodic Memory Recall is a generative processes rather than simply calling up stored data

17. Recalling Episodic Memory Recall is a generative processes rather than simply calling up stored data Evidenced by the fact that episodic memories can be distorted or completely false under certain circumstances

18. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect - exposure to information subsequent to storage of memory can alter the contents of the memory

19. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident

20. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident –Then given the following question: “How fast were the vehicles going when they ______”

21. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident –Then given the following question: “How fast were the vehicles going when they ______” –Different subjects were asked questions that differed in the “magnitude” of the final word

22. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Subjects were shown a video depicting a car accident –Then given the following question: “How fast were the vehicles going when they ______” –Different subjects were asked questions that differed in the “magnitude” of the final word –The possible words were: Contacted, Hit, Bumped, Collided, and Smashed

23. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Consider the following example: –Average estimated velocity depended on the nature of the question

24. Recalling Episodic Memory Misinformation Effect Interpretation: –Episodic memory can be distorted by subsequent information

25. Recalling Episodic Memory Memory for episodes in life can be illusory

26. Recalling Episodic Memory Memory for episodes in life can be illusory Consider the example in Loftus’ article: –participant was induced to have an episodic memory of being lost in a mall

27. Recalling Episodic Memory Memory for episodes in life can be illusory Consider the example in Loftus’ article: –participant was induced to have an episodic memory of being lost in a mall –Even when told the memory is a false one, the participant had difficulty recognizing it as an invalid memory

28. Recalling Episodic Memory False Memories may arise when details of a crime are in question as in eye- witness testimony or repressed memories of abuse during childhood

29. Repressed Memories Elizabeth Loftus

30. “Derepressed memories” Loftus opens with several examples of court cases that involve “derepressed memories” What is a repressed memory? What is a derepressed memory?

31. Loftus’ position in this article Loftus does not reject the notion of repressed memories –18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having regained access to previously repressed memories

32. Loftus’ position in this article Loftus does not reject the notion of repressed memories –18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having regained access to previously repressed memories What does Loftus challenge?

33. Loftus’ position in this article Loftus does not reject the notion of repressed memories –18% - 59% of abuse survivors report having regained access to previously repressed memories What does Loftus challenge? …That all “de-repressed” memories are accurate memories.

34. High Stakes Survivor of real abuse might struggle for years or decades with consequences and need to confront the repressed memory in order to recover emotionally False accusation could tear family apart and send an innocent person to jail

35. What’s the issue? What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories?

36. What’s the issue? What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories? –reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under certain circumstances

37. What’s the issue? What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories? –reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under certain circumstances What is the course of events that Loftus finds worrisome?

38. What’s the issue? What does Loftus express concern about regarding the derepression of memories? –reality of the memory is in question if it is recalled under certain circumstances What is the course of events that Loftus finds worrisome? Therapist or Popular Book suggests that patient consider possibility of abuse Patient engages in intense effort to recall An explicit episodic memory is achieved This memory might be false!

39. What’s the issue? So we potentially have a situation in which someone who is having troubles in life and is seeking answers is told to determine whether or not memories for abuse exist What are some techniques that are used to “assist” recollection?

40. What’s the issue? So we potentially have a situation in which someone who is having troubles in life and is seeking answers is told to determine whether or not memories for abuse exist What are some techniques that are used to “assist” recollection? –hypnosis, imagery, dream analysis, story telling –Loftus presents evidence that such processes may lead to invalid memories or overconfidence in the validity of memories

41. Conclusion: We cannot know with certainty (without corroborating evidence) whether a derepressed memory is true Therapists should engage in probing this possibility very carefully –avoiding suggestive questions –remaining unconvinced without corroborating evidence –being “gently confrontational” to encourage patient to consider the possibility that the events didn’t happen