2. Language and Gender: Part Two Unlike sex, gender is a cultural construction, and part of this construction seems to be that women everywhere and their domestic sphere of influence are accorded inferior valuation as opposed to men and their world of public action (Duranti, 1986: 305).

3. Gender Styles: English Alternatives: pronunciation, word selection, grammatical construction. Language styles: reflection of gender differences “You’re driving rather fast, aren’t you? “Well, I guess it’s approximately four feet high.”

4. Why? Socialization Cultural values Gender roles and cultural values Social norms: construct and reinforce gender attitudes

5. Gender Roles Reflected in Language Styles Pronunciation: tone, intonation, volume Grammatical forms Choices of vocabulary

6. Sociolinguists look at: Conversational interactions ( styles of interactions) Tendencies in language use: Phonological variations: --Example: New England study, “-ing”; the progressive suffix on verbs-

7. Fischer’s study(1958) –prefer –ing prefer –in –Boys57 –Girls102

8. Intonation: rhythm, volume, pitch Different intonation Women: Wide range of pitches, rapid shift in volume and velocity (more emotional) Men: Atonal (control, restrain) Cultural interpretation: cultural valued or negatively evaluated behaviors

9. Grammatical Variants: Standard versus non-standard grammar Cheshire (1982) in Reading, England Present tense –s with non-singular subjects:“We goes shopping on Saturdays.” Has with first-and second-person subjects:“We has a little fire keeps us warm.”

10. Tag Questions Tag questions are sentences in which the speaker makes a declarative statement and add on a tag in the form of a question about the assertion Louise and Lucille didn’t leave together last night, did they? Bill took Luke to the park last night, didn’t he?

11. Why? --are reluctant to make direct assertions --thus avoiding coming into conflict with the addressee --construed as polite --uncertainty lack of definite opinion

12. Choice of Vocabulary Different social and cultural domains: --assumption of expertise --profanity

13. Gender Bias in English Nouns, adjectives, and verbs English covertly and overtly degrades females normative roles and secondary roles Creating a context for interaction of genders ---term opposite sex ---covert and overt inequality

14. The child caught the ball. The ball was caught by the child.

15. Conversational Styles Assumptions about conversational domination McConnell-Ginet (1988) ---Men: 12 min --Women: 3.17 Edelky (1981) --25 to 400% longer

16. Cross-cultural analysis Ideology of gender enacted in language: Example: English Gender specific ways of comm… Universality of gender asymmetry Highly valued speech and men Three cross-cultural examples: Malagasy, Javanese, Kuna

17. Malagasy (Madagascar) Speech norms: indirectness in speech Articulated in public: Kabary ceremony Through use of proverbs, allusions and innuendo Kabary speech and male activities

18. Women and Exclusion Encourage to violate norms Women’s style of speech; secondary Indirect speech = public = male = prestige Direct speech= domestic = female = secondary

19. Javanese Language Importance of politeness for both sexes Status of addressee and speaker reflected in speech Highly stratified Weak distinctions along gender lines Strong ideology of gender equality Differences of speech in public and private

20. Private and Public Spheres (Javanese) Private Women: mas or “older brother” Men: dkik or “younger sibling” Difference in seniority Public Women: Less skillful Men: Greater art of polite speech

21. Kuna (Panama) Egalitarian society economic, political. Labor Complementary separate but equal Private and public contexts: speech styles Public: --equally accessible to both genders --Generally the domain of men Public: ---Exclusive for women

22. What do these examples tell us about the asymmetry in the cultural evaluation of the sexes? Malagasy and Kuna: Egalitarian Javanese stratified Malagasy and Javanese: marked linguistic behavior Kuna: no great differences

23. Languages with “Gender- Preference” Patterns Gender exclusive: alternatives appropriate to their gender Gender preference: language style a social or cultural choice Japan: class, seniority, gender Men: less polite and more assertive Women: more polite and less assertive

24. Choice of words depending on the context Less polite forms More polite forms Stomach hara onaka Water mizu ohiya Delicious umai oisii Eat kuu taberu

25. Summary Women’s domestic sphere -- less value Cultures evaluate gender styles in a similar way Example: Malagasy, Javanese and Kuna Languages Ways of evaluating lang and gender relationship ----Gender exclusive ---- and gender-preference patterns

26. Discussion Question In what ways are the relationship between language and gender cross- culturally similar or different to the relationship between language and race?