1. Saussurean Paradox
“How can a language continue to be used effectively as a vehicle for expression and communication while it is in the middle of a change, or rather in the middle of a large number of changes?”
Trask, R. L. Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, 1996, 267.
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2. Variation in Speech
 “No two people speak exactly the same”  And no individual speaks exactly the same every time he/she speaks.
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 131.
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3. Speaker Innovation— Not Language Change
“In reality, it is not so much that language itself changes as that speakers and writers change the way they use the language. Speaker innovation is a more accurate description than language change.”
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 206.
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4. Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 1)
Page Location Trend Source of Change
Example or Comment
New Zealand
new / nuclear /nju/  /nu/ American influence
208 Isle of Wight (UK)
Vr Vr  V London influence (3 gen)
Martha’s Vineyard (US)
light /ai// i/ Attitude: solidarity/identify
house au/  / u with island culture
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp
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5. Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 2)
Page Location Trend Source of Change
Example or Comment
213 Sydney (Aus)
High-Rise Terminal NZ? (more young people)
2nd French (France)
Nasalization /n/  nasal V
2nd New Zealand
milk, fill, feel, silk Vl  V England?? child
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 213.
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6. Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 3)
Page Location Trend Source of Change
Example or Comment
208 English
Scouse accent increased use Liverpool boys: peers
209 Charmey, Switz. (French?)
pronun innovations the young and women
210 Ucieda (Spain)
 standard Castilian women
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp
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7. Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Pronunciation 4)
Page Location Trend Source of Change
Example or Comment
210 Ucieda (Spain)
standard Castilian women
213 Norwich (Britain)
Cockney slang; London influence on
glottal stops; commuter Sam
h-dropping
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp
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8. Summary of Examples of Linguistic Change (Vocabulary)
Page Location Trend Source of Change
Example or Comment
205 David (England?) wireless / radio familiarity for 3 gen
213 New Zealand far out one American boy
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, pp. 205, 213.
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9. Wave Metaphor of Variation Spread
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 215.
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10. Progress of Linguistic Change
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. London: Longman, p. 222.
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11. Does TV spread new forms?
“A popular compromise is the view that the media can soften listeners up by exposing them to new forms in the speech of admired pop stars or TV personalities. When people are subsequently exposed to a particular form in the speech of a real person, they are then more likely to adopt it.”
Holmes, Janet An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 227.
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12. Spreading—Traditional Model
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13. Spreading—TV Model?
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14. Early Modern English Pronunciation Change
mate meat meet Middle English /a:/ /ε:/ /e:/ Vowel Shift /e/ /i/ 16th century /met/ /met/ /mit/ 17th century /met/ /mit/ /mit/
Trask, R.L Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold; based on descriptions on pp
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15. Morris Halle’s Explanation for mate, meat, and meet
“In 1962, the distinguished Chomskyan linguist Morris Halle, in apparent desperation, put forward an astounding explanation: taking advantage of the abstract underlying forms permitted by Chomskyan linguistics, he suggested that several generations of speakers must have manage to keep the mate and meat vowels distinct in their heads, even though they always pronounced these vowels identically, and even though they never heard anybody else making the distinction.”
Trask, R.L Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 283.
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16. Evolution of “do” Support in English Questions
 1388: NONE Wycliffe  1526/1611: Some Tyndale / AV  Today: ALWAYS 1 1 Except when there are modals and BE and maybe HAVE
Trask, R.L Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 283.
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17. Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox
“Changes can proceed without disrupting the system of a language because the vehicle of change is variation, and variation is always present—indeed, it is a central characteristic of speech.”
Trask, R.L Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, p. 281.
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18. Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox
“How can a language continue to be used effectively as a vehicle for expression and communication while it is in the middle of a change, or rather in the middle of a large number of changes?” (p. 267)
Resolution of the Saussurean Paradox
“Changes can proceed without disrupting the system of a language because the vehicle of change is variation, and variation is always present—indeed, it is a central characteristic of speech.” (p. 281)
Trask, R.L Historical Linguistics. London: Arnold, pp. 267, 281.
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