Theories of Growth & Development

Theories of Growth & Development
Journey Across the Life Span - Chapter 5

Definitions Growth h physical size Quantitative
What is growth? Refers to the increase in physical size – Quantitative (it can be measures in inches, pounds, etc.) OBJECTIVE

Definitions Development Gaining skills Qualitative
What is development? Refers to the progression and acquisition of skills and the capacity to function. - Qualitative and moves from general to specific SUBJECTIVE Result of learned behavior and maturation

Definitions Maturation Full development of a skill
Similar to development, is a total process in which skills and potential that are independent of practice or training – emerge. Maturation is the attainment of full development of a particular skill. Maturation is the process of becoming mature; the emergence of personal and behavioral characteristics through growth processes.

Uniqueness Personality
Behavior patterns that distinguish one person from another

Directional Terms Cephalocaudal Proximodistal Head (Cephalo) 
Tail (Caudal) Center (proximal) Extremities (distal) Relating to both head and tail, to the long axis of the body G&D Progresses from:

Genetics vs. Environment
2 major influences on G&D Hereditary characteristics Genes Nature Environmental Culture Nurture

G&D Assumptions Simple  complex Continuous Individualized All systems
Holistic process

Understanding Theories
Stages Progressive Regress All developmental theories are divided into stages and are considered progressive. Ideally, an individual accomplished a task or skill at one stage before moving on to a later stage. However, conflicts and stressor can delay or prolong the completion of a tasks or even cause some temporary backwards movement, known as regression. After the resolution of the conflict or stress, individuals usually return to their appropriate developmental levels. The specific age ranges given for these developmental stages are approximate and vary somewhat for individuals. It is even possible fore stages to overlap, allowing individuals to work on several tasks at the same time.

Psychoanalytical Theory
Father: Sigmund Freud 3 part theory Levels of awareness Components of the personality/mind Psychosexual stages

Freud’s levels of awareness
Conscious Sub-conscious Unconscious Levels of awareness include conscious, subconscious and unconscious. Became the basis of Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis

Level of awareness: Conscious
Immediate awareness Reality logic Experiences with in immediate awareness Reality logic

Level of awareness: Subconscious
AKA: Preconscious Stores memories, thoughts, feelings recalled with little effort AKA: Preconscious Stores memories, thoughts, feelings that can be recalled with little effort

Level of awareness: Unconscious
“Closed” awareness Painful memories  Stress Part of the mind “closed” to awareness Memories that are usually painful and are kept in the unconscious to prevent anxiety and stress. Freud believed that behavior could be understood by delving into the forces of the unconscious mind.

3 Components of the mind Id Ego Superego

Component of the Mind: Id
Primitive urges Pleasure Libido Immediate Body’s basic primitive urges Pleasure Libido (sex drive) Demands immediate satisfaction “I want it NOW!”

Component of the Mind: SuperEgo
Judges, controls, punishes Right from wrong Conscience Judges, controls, punishes Dictates right from wrong Conscience “You can’t have it.”

Component of the Mind: Ego
Executive Compromise “Well, maybe later” Executive of the mind Compromise “Well, maybe later”

Defense Mechanisms AKA: Mental mechanisms Coping Mechanisms
Protect the EGO Adaptive Maladaptive AKA: mental mechanisms to protect one’s EGO Techniques used to “cope” Sigmund Freud Short term use / “Adaptive” OK Over use / “Maladaptive” Most take place in the unconscious level (except suppression) A defense mechanism is a tactic developed by the ego to protect against anxiety. Defense mechanisms are thought to safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with. In some instances, defense mechanisms are thought to keep inappropriate or unwanted thoughts and impulses from entering the conscious mind. For example, if you are faced with a particularly unpleasant task, your mind may choose to forget your responsibility in order to avoid the dreaded assignment. In addition to forgetting, other defense mechanisms include rationalization, denial, repression, projection, rejection and reaction formation.

Defense Mechanism: Suppression
Putting it out of your awareness This is the one mechanism that operates on the conscious level. This is best described as the conscious putting out of awareness one’s distressing feelings. These feelings can be brought back into focus at will. All individuals use suppression as a means of concentrating on what is at hand. For example, the person how just had an argument with his or her spouse goes to work and says, “I can’t think about my anger while working.” Leslie learning to drive – up on curb – security guard etc. “Can I cry now?”

Defense Mechanism: Denial
AKA: Repression Unable to recognize the event Used totally on the unconscious level. Individuals automatically use this technique when they are unexpectedly confronted with some sort of unbearable news. With this DM in individual is unable to recognize the event or emotions surrounding the occurrence. An example of denial is illustrated in the story of the woman who, when faced with the news that her husband was just killed in an accident, rejects the news and goes to call him in his office. Denial Denial is the refusal to accept reality or fact, acting as if a painful event, thought or feeling did not exist. It is considered one of the most primitive of the defense mechanisms because it is characteristic of early childhood development. Many people use denial in their everyday lives to avoid dealing with painful feelings or areas of their life they don’t wish to admit. For instance, a person who is a functioning alcoholic will often simply deny they have a drinking problem, pointing to how well they function in their job and relationships. Repression Repression is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts, feelings and impulses. The key to repression is that people do it unconsciously, so they often have very little control over it. “Repressed memories” are memories that have been unconsciously blocked from access or view. But because memory is very malleable and ever-changing, it is not like playing back a DVD of your life. The DVD has been filtered and even altered by your life experiences, even by what you’ve read or viewed.

Defense Mechanism: Rationalization
Justify or excuse undesirable action or feelings Most widely used by all ages Justify or excuse undesirable action or feelings A face-saving technique that may or may not deal with the truth. This mechanism can prevent the individual from confronting reality and learning to deal with it constructively. An example of rationalization is the student who blames the teacher for his failing grade when in reality he did not study or prepare adequately for his exam.

Defense Mechanism: Identification
Take on the personality traits of another One takes on the personality trait of another person, usually one held in high esteem. This mechanism is used by the child during sexual role identification. The young boy assumes the masculine characteristics admired in his father. The nursing student may copy behavior and mannerisms of a professor held in high esteem. Identification is defined as “Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group.” This is a fairly common method of attempting to forget about ones troubles, happens fairly often, especially in insecure people. A person joining a sports team, fraternity, social clique or even subcultures are all examples of this.

Defense Mechanism: Sublimation
Redirect impulses into acceptable outlets Is another mental mechanism in which the individual channels or redirects unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable outlets. Most of these mechanism involve primitive drives or pleasurable feelings that are channeled and expressed in socially appropriate ways. An example of sublimation is demonstrated when the jilted lover expresses his longing in poetry or song. The youngster who becomes enraged at his teacher takes his hostile feelings and punches the punching bag as his outlet. Sublimation is considered to be a positive, effective coping mechanism. Sublimation Sublimation is simply the channeling of unacceptable impulses, thoughts and emotions into more acceptable ones. For instance, when a person has sexual impulses they would like not to act upon, they may instead focus on rigorous exercise. Refocusing such unacceptable or harmful impulses into productive use helps a person channel energy that otherwise would be lost or used in a manner that might cause the person more anxiety. Sublimation can also be done with humor or fantasy. Humor, when used as a defense mechanism, is the channeling of unacceptable impulses or thoughts into a light-hearted story or joke. Humor reduces the intensity of a situation, and places a cushion of laughter between the person and the impulses. Fantasy, when used as a defense mechanism, is the channeling of unacceptable or unattainable desires into imagination. For example, imagining one’s ultimate career goals can be helpful when one experiences temporary setbacks in academic achievement. Both can help a person look at a situation in a different way, or focus on aspects of the situation not previously explored.

Defense Mechanism: Regression
Conflict  return to an earlier stage Conflict  return to an earlier more developmentally secure stage previously toilet-trained young child facing the stress of the birth of a new sibling starts having accidents and wetting the bed. This retreat to an earlier stage of development allows the person to feel more comfortable and les threatened. G&D is stressful (in a good way) Regression Regression is the reversion to an earlier stage of development in the face of unacceptable thoughts or impulses. For an example an adolescent who is overwhelmed with fear, anger and growing sexual impulses might become clingy and start exhibiting earlier childhood behaviors he has long since overcome, such as bedwetting. An adult may regress when under a great deal of stress, refusing to leave their bed and engage in normal, everyday activities.

Defense Mechanism: Displacement
Transfer emotions from person to object Transfers emotions associated with a person or object to another, less threatening person or object. A classic example of displacement is the man who is angry at his boss but yells at his wife instead. This may protect the man from losing his job, but it creates displaced hostility towards his wife.

Defense Mechanism: Projection
“Blaming mechanism” Rejects unacceptable thoughts or feelings and attribute them to another person Blaming mechanism Rejects unacceptable thoughts or feelings and attribute them to another person The man is projecting when he accuses his wise of flirting and being unfaithful when it is he who has an attraction to another woman. . Projection Projection is the misattribution of a person’s undesired thoughts, feelings or impulses onto another person who does not have those thoughts, feelings or impulses. Projection is used especially when the thoughts are considered unacceptable for the person to express, or they feel completely ill at ease with having them. For example, a spouse may be angry at their significant other for not listening, when in fact it is the angry spouse who does not listen. Projection is often the result of a lack of insight and acknowledgement of one’s own motivations and feelings.

Defense Mechanism: Compensation
Make up for deficiencies in one area by excelling in another are

Defense Mechanism: Undoing
Attempt to make-up for something unacceptable 12. Undoing Undoing is the attempt to take back an unconscious behavior or thought that is unacceptable or hurtful. For instance, after realizing you just insulted your significant other unintentionally, you might spend then next hour praising their beauty, charm and intellect. By “undoing” the previous action, the person is attempting to counteract the damage done by the original comment, hoping the two will balance one another out.

Defense Mechanism: Reaction formation
Overcompensation Unacceptable feelings or thoughts are replaced with opposite feelings or thoughts 7. Reaction Formation Reaction Formation is the converting of unwanted or dangerous thoughts, feelings or impulses into their opposites. For instance, a woman who is very angry with her boss and would like to quit her job may instead be overly kind and generous toward her boss and express a desire to keep working there forever. She is incapable of expressing the negative emotions of anger and unhappiness with her job, and instead becomes overly kind to publicly demonstrate her lack of anger and unhappiness.

Defense Mechanism: Conversion
Unconscious anxiety converts into physical symptoms (no organic basis) Guys and dolls song 7:00

Defense Mechanism: Acting Out*
Extreme behavior in order to express thoughts or feelings Acting Out Acting Out is performing an extreme behavior in order to express thoughts or feelings the person feels incapable of otherwise expressing. Instead of saying, “I’m angry with you,” a person who acts out may instead throw a book at the person, or punch a hole through a wall. When a person acts out, it can act as a pressure release, and often helps the individual feel calmer and peaceful once again. For instance, a child’s temper tantrum is a form of acting out when he or she doesn’t get his or her way with a parent. Self-injury may also be a form of acting-out, expressing in physical pain what one cannot stand to feel emotionally.

You just found out that you have flunked out of the nursing program.
Give an example of Acting Out… Hysterical crying and screaming and pulling out your hair.

Psychoanalytical Theory
Father: Sigmund Freud 3 part theory Levels of awareness Components of the personality/mind Psychosexual stages

Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital Conflict  Resolve  Next stage 5 stages of psychosexual development. Each stage is assoc. with partiular conflicts that must be resolved before the child can move on the to the next stage. ALSO the experiences a child has during the early stages of G&D determine later adjustment patterns and personality traits in adult life.

Oral Stage Age Erogenous area Developmental task Birth – 18 months
Mouth Developmental task Weaning See self as separate from environment Erogenous – sexually arousing Relief from anxiety through oral gratification of needs Leslie and the electic cord

Oral Stage Fixation Dependency Aggression Seek oral stimulation
Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking or nail biting.

Anal Stage Age: 18 months – 3 years Erogenous area: Anus
Developmental task: Learning independence and control Toilet training Beginning of stage mouth + anus. Instead of being repulsive to a child, the process of defication gives the child pleasure and satisfaction. Toilet training is initally experiences as a conflict between the demands of the parent and the child’s biological needs. Resolution of this conflict gives the child a sense of self-control and independence. Focus on excretory functions

Anal Stage Fixation: Anal-expulsive Anal-retentive
Messy, wasteful, destructive Anal-retentive Stringent, orderly, rigid Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive.

Phallic Stage Age 3 – 6 years Erogenous area Genital organs
Developmental task ID with parent of the same gender 3 – 6 years ID with parent of the same gender Develop sexual identity Focus on genitals During this period the child devotes a lot of time to examining his or her genitalia. Masturbation and interest in sexual organs are normal. Exhibition is also typical at this age. The child appears comfortable with his or her body and likes to undress and parade around naked. Parental disapproval of the child’s preoccupation with the genitals can result in feelings of confusion and shame. “I’ve been watching you dad.”

Phallic Stage Oedipus complex Electra complex
Boys sexual attraction to mom Electra complex Girl attracted to dad Oedipus complex: Boys unconscious sexual attraction to his mother (Tries to get rid of father). To win his mother affection , he resolves the conflict by eventually taking on the father’s characteristics. This process begins sex-role identification. Electra complex: Girl is attracted to her father (Tries to get rid of mother). Through imitation, the child copies the mothering role and eventually gains the father’s affection and approval. Resolution of the Electra complex produces sex-role identification for the female child. As a psychoanalytic metaphor for daughter–mother psychosexual conflict, the Electra complex derives from the 5th-century BC Greek mythologic character Electra, who plotted matricidal revenge with Orestes, her brother, against Clytemnestra, their mother, and Aegisthus, their stepfather, for their murder of Agamemnon, their father. Sigmund Freud developed the female aspects of the sexual development theory — describing the psychodynamics of a girl’s sexual competition with mother for sexual possession of father — as the feminine Oedipus attitude and the negative Oedipus complex; yet it was his collaborator Carl Jung who coined the term Electra complex in Freud rejected Jung’s term as psychoanalytically inaccurate: “that what we have said about the Oedipus complex applies with complete strictness to the male child only, and that we are right in rejecting the term ‘Electra complex’, which seeks to emphasize the analogy between the attitude of the two sexes”

Latency stage Age 6-12 years Erogenous area Dormant Developmental task
Peer relationships During this time the child’s sexual urges are dormant. The sexual energies are being channeled into more socially acceptable means of expressions. Scholl age kids focus mainly on intellectual pursuits. Peer relationships intensify between kids of the same sex. Sports and other such activities help in the development of these peer relationships.

Genital Stage Age 13-20 years Erogenous area Genital Puberty
Developmental task Relationships with opposite sex Balance This stage begins with the onset of puberty. During puberty many physical changes occur that prepare the body for reproduction. Hormonal activity and maturing of the sex organs result in the awakening of sexual attraction and interest in heterosexual relationships. The child continues to struggle with a desire for independence but still has a need for parental supervision. During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life. Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

Summary: Freud Personality determined by childhood events
Psychosexual stages Incomplete stage  Fixation  Adult personality The theories proposed by Sigmund Freud stressed the importance of childhood events and experiences, but almost exclusively focused on mental disorders rather that normal functioning. According to Freud, child development is described as a series of 'psychosexual stages.' In "Three Essays on Sexuality" (1915), Freud outlined these stages as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Each stage involves the satisfaction of a libidinal desire and can later play a role in adult personality. If a child does not successfully complete a stage, Freud suggested that he or she would develop a fixation that would later influence adult personality and behavior. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

Psychosocial Theory Erik Erikson 8 stages span lifespan
Tasks have to be accomplished  h Independence h Self-esteem Ericson, a close follower of Freud, broadened Freud's theory of personality development. Erikson identified eight stages that span the ful life cycle from infancy to old age. He studied the child within a large social setting beyond the immediate family. He believed that at each stage certain critical tasks have to be accomplished. The successful completion of each task enables individuals to increase independence and feel good about themselves and others.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Trust Vs. Mistrust
Age Birth – 18 mo. Infancy Major developmental Task Develop trust with mothering figure and generalize it to others Major Question: "Can I trust the people around me?“ Basic Virtue: Hope Important Event: Feeding The trust versus mistrust stage is the first stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between birth and approximately 18 months of age. According to Erikson, the trust versus mistrust stage is the most important period in a person’s life. Because an infant is entirely dependent upon his or her caregivers, the quality of care that the child receives plays an important role in the shaping of the child’s personality. During this stage, children learn whether or not they can trust the people around them. When a baby cries, does his caregiver attend to his needs? When he is frightened, will someone comfort him? we know that orphans who weren't held or stroked as infants have an extremely hard time connecting with others when they become adults and have even died from lack of human contact. When these needs are consistently met, the child will learn that he can trust the people that are caring for him. If, however, these needs are not consistently met, the child will begin to mistrust the people around him. If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. Erikson also referred to infancy as the Oral Sensory Stage (as anyone might who watches a baby put everything in her mouth) where the major emphasis is on the mother's positive and loving care for the child, with a big emphasis on visual contact and touch. If we pass successfully through this period of life, we will learn to trust that life is basically okay and have basic confidence in the future. If we fail to experience trust and are constantly frustrated because our needs are not met, we may end up with a deep-seated feeling of worthlessness and a mistrust of the world in general. Incidentally, many studies of suicides and suicide attempts point to the importance of the early years in developing the basic belief that the world is trustworthy and that every individual has a right to be here. Not surprisingly, the most significant relationship is with the maternal parent, or whoever is our most significant and constant caregiver.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Autonomy Vs. Shame & Doubt
Age 18 mo – 3 yrs Early Childhood Major developmental Task Gain some control & independence within the environment Major Question: "Can I do things myself or am I reliant on the help of others?" Basic Virtue: Will Important Event: Toilet Training The child begins to gain control over his or her body and develop a sense of independence or autonomy. Autonomy is characterized by the acquistition of skills involving feeding, mobility, dressing and control of elimination. Developing independence strengthens the child’s self concept. Without loving support from the environment, the child develops feelings of shame and doubt. During this stage we learn to master skills for ourselves. Not only do we learn to walk, talk and feed ourselves, we are learning finer motor development as well as the much appreciated toilet training. Here we have the opportunity to build self-esteem and autonomy as we gain more control over our bodies and acquire new skills, learning right from wrong. And one of our skills during the "Terrible Two's" is our ability to use the powerful word "NO!" It may be pain for parents, but it develops important skills of the will. It is also during this stage, however, that we can be very vulnerable. If we're shamed in the process of toilet training or in learning other important skills, we may feel great shame and doubt of our capabilities and suffer low self-esteem as a result. The most significant relationships are with parents.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Initiative Vs. Guilt
Age 3-6 yrs Late childhood Major developmental Task Develop sense of purpose & the ability to initiate and direct own activities Major Question: “Am I good or bad?” Basic Virtue: Purpose Important Event: Exploration, Play Important Event(s): Exploration, Play Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage occurs during the preschool years, between the ages of three and five. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interaction. Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment by taking initiative by planning activities, accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. During this stage, it is important for caregivers to encourage exploration and to help children make appropriate choices. Caregivers who are discouraging or dismissive may cause children to feel ashamed of themselves and to become overly dependent upon the help of others. Play and imagination takes on an important role at this stage. Children have their sense of initiative reinforced by being given the freedom and encouragement to play. When efforts to engage in physical and imaginative play are stifled by caregivers, children begin to feel that their self-initiated efforts are a source of embarrassment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt. During this period we experience a desire to copy the adults around us and take initiative in creating play situations. We make up stories with Barbie's and Ken's, toy phones and miniature cars, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what we believe it means to be an adult. We also begin to use that wonderful word for exploring the world — "WHY?" While Erikson was influenced by Freud, he downplays biological sexuality in favor of the psychosocial features of conflict between child and parents. Nevertheless, he said that at this stage we usually become involved in the classic "Oedipal struggle" and resolve this struggle through "social role identification." If we're frustrated over natural desires and goals, we may easily experience guilt. The most significant relationship is with the basic family.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Industry Vs. Inferiority
Age 6 – 12 yrs School age Major developmental Task Develop self-confidence by learning, competing etc. Major Question: "How can I be good?“ Basic Virtue: Competence Important Event: School Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. The stage occurs during childhood between the ages of six and eleven. School and social interaction play an important role during this time of a child’s life. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. During the industry versus inferiority stage, children become capable of performing increasingly complex tasks. As a result, they strive to master new skills. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their ability to be successful. According to Erikson, this stage is vital in the development of self-confidence. During school and other social activities, children receive praise and attention for performing various tasks such as reading, writing, drawing and solving problems. Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. During this stage, often called the Latency, we are capable of learning, creating and accomplishing numerous new skills and knowledge, thus developing a sense of industry. This is also a very social stage of development and if we experience unresolved feelings of inadequacy and inferiority among our peers, we can have serious problems in terms of competence and self-esteem. As the world expands a bit, our most significant relationship is with the school and neighborhood. Parents are no longer the complete authorities they once were, although they are still important.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Identity Vs. Role Confusion
Age 12 – 20 yrs Adolescence Major developmental Task Integrate tasks mastered & secure sense of self Major Question: "Who am I?“ Basic Virtue: Fidelity Important Event: Social Relationships Identity versus confusion is the fifth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage occurs during adolescence between the ages of approximately 12 to 18. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. During adolescence, children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self. As they make the transition from childhood to adulthood, teens may begin to feel confused or insecure about themselves and how they fit in to society. As they seek to establish a sense of self, teens may experiment with different roles, activities and behaviors. According to Erikson, this is important to the process of forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will insecure and confused about themselves and the future. Up to this stage, according to Erikson, development mostly depends upon what is done to us. From here on out, development depends primarily upon what we do. And while adolescence is a stage at which we are neither a child nor an adult, life is definitely getting more complex as we attempt to find our own identity, struggle with social interactions, and grapple with moral issues. Our task is to discover who we are as individuals separate from our family of origin and as members of a wider society. Unfortunately for those around us, in this process many of us go into a period of withdrawing from responsibilities, which Erikson called a "moratorium." And if we are unsuccessful in navigating this stage, we will experience role confusion and upheaval. A significant task for us is to establish a philosophy of life and in this process we tend to think in terms of ideals, which are conflict free, rather than reality, which is not. The problem is that we don't have much experience and find it easy to substitute ideals for experience. However, we can also develop strong devotion to friends and causes. It is no surprise that our most significant relationships are with peer groups.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Intimacy Vs. Isolation
Age 20 – 30 Young adulthood Major developmental Task Form intense lasting relationship Major Question: "Will I be loved or will I be alone?“ Basic Virtue: Love Important Event: Romantic Relationships Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 19 and 40. During this period of time, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. While psychosocial theory is often presented as a series of neatly defined, sequential steps, it is important to remember that each stage contributes to the next. For example, Erikson believed that having a fully formed sense of self (established during the identity versus confusion stage) is essential to being able to form intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. In the initial stage of being an adult we seek one or more companions and love. As we try to find mutually satisfying relationships, primarily through marriage and friends, we generally also begin to start a family, though this age has been pushed back for many couples who today don't start their families until their late thirties. If negotiating this stage is successful, we can experience intimacy on a deep level. If we're not successful, isolation and distance from others may occur. And when we don't find it easy to create satisfying relationships, our world can begin to shrink as, in defense, we can feel superior to others. Our significant relationships are with marital partners and friends.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Generativity Vs. Stagnation
Age 30 – 65 yrs Adulthood Major developmental Task Achieve life goals and also considering the welfare of future generations Major Question: "How can I contribute to the world?“ Basic Virtue: Care Important Event: Parenthood & Work Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during middle adulthood between the ages of approximately 40 and 65. During this time, adults strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them; often by having children or contributing to positive changes that benefits other people. Contributing to society and doing things to benefit future generations are important needs at the generativity versus stagnation stage of development. Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world, through caring for others, creating things and accomplishing things that make the world a better place. Stagnation refers to the failure to find a way to contribute. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world. Now work is most crucial. Erikson observed that middle-age is when we tend to be occupied with creative and meaningful work and with issues surrounding our family. Also, middle adulthood is when we can expect to "be in charge," the role we've longer envied. The significant task is to perpetuate culture and transmit values of the culture through the family (taming the kids) and working to establish a stable environment. Strength comes through care of others and production of something that contributes to the betterment of society, which Erikson calls generativity, so when we're in this stage we often fear inactivity and meaninglessness. As our children leave home, or our relationships or goals change, we may be faced with major life changes — the mid-life crisis — and struggle with finding new meanings and purposes. If we don't get through this stage successfully, we can become self-absorbed and stagnate. Significant relationships are within the workplace, the community and the family.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Ego Integrity Vs. Despair
Age 65 yrs – death Old age Major developmental Task To review one’s life and derive meaning Major Question: "Did I live a meaningful life?“ Basic Virtue: Wisdom Important Event: Reflecting back on life Integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage occurs during late adulthood from age 65 through the end of life. During this period of time, people reflect back on the life they have lived and come away with either a sense of fulfillment from a life well lived or a sense of regret and despair over a life misspent. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Erikson felt that much of life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage and the last stage is recovering from it. Perhaps that is because as older adults we can often look back on our lives with happiness and are content, feeling fulfilled with a deep sense that life has meaning and we've made a contribution to life, a feeling Erikson calls integrity. Our strength comes from a wisdom that the world is very large and we now have a detached concern for the whole of life, accepting death as the completion of life. On the other hand, some adults may reach this stage and despair at their experiences and perceived failures. They may fear death as they struggle to find a purpose to their lives, wondering "Was the trip worth it?" Alternatively, they may feel they have all the answers (not unlike going back to adolescence) and end with a strong dogmatism that only their view has been correct. The significant relationship is with all of mankind — "my-kind."

Cognitive Theory Jean Piaget Intellect & develop thought processes

Cognitive theory 3 Major Concepts
Schema Idea’s that grow from experience Assimilation Ability to absorb new information into schemas Accommodation Schemas change with new information skee-muh

A child seeing a zebra for the first time and calling it a horse.
The child assimilates this information into her schema for a horse. When the child takes into consideration the different properties of a zebra compared to a horse, perhaps calling a zebra a horse with stripes. When she eventually learns the name of zebra, she has accommodated this information.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development SENSORIMOTOR
Birth – 2 yrs Major developmental Task Mobility Sense of self Object permanence Form mental images

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Preoperational
2 – 6 yrs Major developmental Task Express self with language Understanding gestures Object permanence

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Concrete operational
yrs Major developmental Task Logical thinking Reversibility & spatiality Differentiate and classify Socializing Apply rules

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Formal operational
12 – 16 yrs Major developmental Task Abstract thinking Testing hypotheses Logical thinking Cogitative maturity

Human Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow

Physiological Needs O2 Food Water

Safety Needs Feeling free from danger and risk
Secure in one’s own environment

Belonging Feeling worthy of affection and social support

Self-Esteem Feeling competent Strong self-worth

Self-Actualization Meeting one’s full potential

Theory of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg Develop moral reasoning as you gain ability to think logically 3 levels of moral development 6 stages of acquired moral reasoning

Kohlberg Dilemma In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife. Should the husband have done that?

Level: Preconventional
Age 4-10 yrs Stage Punishment & obedience oriented Instrumental relativist oriented Behavior motivated by fear of punishment Behavior motivated by egocentrism and concern for self Level 1 (Pre-Conventional) 1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?) 2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?) (Paying for a benefit) Level 2 (Conventional) 3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms) (The good boy/good girl attitude) 4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality) Level 3 (Post-Conventional) 5. Social contract orientation 6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)

Level: Conventional Age: 10-13 yrs Stage
Interpersonal concordance orientation Law and order orientation Behavior motivated by expectations of others, strong desire for approval & acceptance Behavior motivated by respect for authority

Level: Postconventional
Age: adolescence up Stages 5. Social contract legalistic orientation 6. Universal ethical principle orientation Behavior motivated by respect for laws and moral principles Behavior motivated by internalized principles of honor

Theories of Growth & Development

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