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Sociology Semester Exam Review
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Questions per Chapter Chapter 1- 11 Sociological Perspective
Chapter 2-13 Sociological Investigation Chapter 3-13 Culture Chapter 5- 5 Socialization Chapter 6-10 Social Interaction Chapter 7-5 Groups/Organizations Chapter 8- 6 Sexuality Chapter 9-12 Deviance
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“...The systematic study of human society ”
What Is Sociology? “...The systematic study of human society ” Systematic Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior Human society Group behavior is primary focus; how groups influence individuals and vice versa At the “heart of sociology” The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society
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The Sociological Perspective Peter Berger
Seeing the general in the particular Sociologists identify general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals. Seeing the strange in the familiar Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a matter of what people decide to do Understanding that society shapes our lives
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Sociological Perspective and Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills
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C. Wright Mills’ Sociological Imagination
The power of the sociological perspective lies not just in changing individual lives but in transforming society. Society, not people’s personal failings, is the cause of social problems. The sociological imagination transforms personal troubles into public issues.
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Sociological Theory Theory: a statement of how and why facts are related Explains social behavior to the real world Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking Structural-functional Social-conflict Symbolic-interaction
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Structural-Functional Theory
A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as a whole unit, composed of interrelated parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium Also known as functionalism and structural functionalism
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Functional Analysis Focuses on Social Structure and Social Function
Structure- stable pattern of behavior Function: consequences of patterns for operation of society Argues that Social Order is based on Social Consensus
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Social Functions Manifest Functions- Intended
Latent Functions- Unintended Dysfunctions- Problematic
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Critical Evaluations of Functional Analysis
Tends to be conservative Tends to dismiss change-”systems” Overlooks the negative
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Structural-Functional Paradigm
The basics A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability Key elements: Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of social behavior found in social institutions. Social function refers to the consequences for the operation of society as a whole.
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Conflict Theory A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of groups competing for scarce resources. 13
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Conflict Theory Focuses on Social Tension and Social Change
Is macro level orientation Argues that Social Order is maintained by direct or indirect exercise of power “Marginality”-those on the fringe of society Originated from the work of Karl Marx
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Social-Conflict Paradigm
The basics: A macro-oriented paradigm Views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change Key elements: Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority. Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality. Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations
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Symbolic-Interaction Theory
A theoretical perspective that focuses on how people use symbols to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another.
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Interactionism Focuses on details of everyday life and interaction between people, and on how meaning is assigned to human interaction Is micro level orientation Argues that society responds through symbolic interaction Originated from the studies of Max Weber and George Herbert Mead
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Who’s Who in the Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
Max Weber Understanding a setting from the people in it George Herbert Mead How we build personalities from social experience Erving Goffman Dramaturgical analysis George Homans & Peter Blau Social-exchange analysis
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Critical Evaluation Structural-Functional Social-Conflict
Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender, focuses on stability at the expense of conflict Social-Conflict Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual interdependence unify society, pursues political goals Symbolic-Interaction Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture, factors such as class, gender & race
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Sociological Investigation
A logical system that derives knowledge From direct, systematic observation
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Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation
Scientific sociology The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with our senses Interpretive sociology The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world Critical sociology The study of society that focuses on the need for change
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Causation Cause and effect Correlation Spurious correlation
A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another (Hard to establish) Correlation A relationship by which two or more variables change together (direct/inverse- positive/negative) Spurious correlation An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable Types of variables Independent: The variable that causes the change Dependent: The variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable)
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Variables Dependent Variable- The variable that changes due to the
Independent Variable- the variable that causes the change Dependent: Grade on the Exam Independent(s): The amount of time studying, reading level, energy level, grades on previous tests, etc.
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Spurious Correlations
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Shoe Size & Math Skill
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Scientific Sociology Terminology
Concepts–A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case Measurement–A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable
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Scientific Sociology Terminology
Reliability–Consistency in measurement Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter? Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure? If measurement is not Reliable, then it can’t be Valid- but needs to be both to be of any value
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Scientific Sociology Terminology
Objectivity A state of personal neutrality in conducting research Value-free research Weber said sociologists should strive to be dispassionate and detached. Replication Repetition of research by other investigators Helps limit distortion caused by personal values
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Limitations of Scientific Sociology
Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions. The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied. Social patterns change. Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult.
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Miligram's Experiment The Original Miligram Experiment (1961) • VideoSift: Online Video *Quality Control Administered electric shocks to “Subjects”
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Sociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research
Experiment–A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess) Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment “Hawthorne effect”– A change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied
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Control To be certain that the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the independent variable, the researcher must keep constant other factors that might intrude. One method is to break group into experimental and control groups. Experimental group is exposed to independent variable. Control group is exposed to a placebo.
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Survey Research A research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview Population The people who are the focus of the research Sample The part of the population that represents the whole Random Sample Drawing a sample from a population so that every element of the population has an equal chance of being selected
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Culture The values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that together form a people’s way of life
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Terminology Nonmaterial culture Material culture
The intangible world of ideas created by members of a society Material culture The tangible things created by members of a society
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Terminology Culture shock Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism
Disorientation due to the inability to make sense out of one’s surroundings Domestic and foreign travel Ethnocentrism A biased “cultural yardstick”-Evaluate based on your own Culture’s standards Cultural relativism More accurate understanding-cultural perspective-context of the culture
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Symbols Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture Societies create new symbols all the time. Reality for humans is found in the meaning things carry with them. The basis of culture; makes social life possible
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Symbols People must be mindful that meanings vary from culture to culture. Meanings can even vary greatly within the same groups of people. Fur coats, Confederate flags, etc.
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Values and Beliefs Values Beliefs
Culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty, which serve as broad guidelines for social living. Values support beliefs. Beliefs Specific statements that people hold to be true. Particular matters that individuals consider to be true or false.
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Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior
Norms Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior Types Proscriptive Should-nots, prohibited Prescriptive Shoulds, prescribed like medicine Mores and Folkways Mores (pronounced "more-rays") Widely observed and have great moral significance Folkways Norms for routine and casual interaction
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Social Control Guilt Shame A negative judgment we make about ourselves
Various means by which members of society encourage conformity to norms Guilt A negative judgment we make about ourselves Shame The painful sense that others disapprove of our actions
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Cultural Diversity Subculture–Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of society’s population. Counterculture–Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society.
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Terms Culture integration Culture lag
The close relationships among various elements of a cultural system Example: Computers and changes in our language Culture lag The fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, which might disrupt a cultural system Example: Medical procedures and ethics Cultural universals– Traits that are part of every known culture; includes family, funeral rites, and jokes
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Socialization The lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture
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Social Experience Socialization Personality
The lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn patterns of their culture Personality A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting Could a person’s personality develop without social interaction?
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Nature and Nurture Biological sciences–The role of nature
Elements of society have a naturalistic root. Social sciences–The role of nurture Most of who and what we are as a species is learned, or social in nature. Behaviorism Nature or nurture? It is both, but from a sociological perspective, nurture matters more.
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Social Isolation Effect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments
Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb development. Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle Years of isolation left both children damaged and only capable of approximating a normal life after intensive rehabilitation. Genie Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent disabilities
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Theories Freud- Id, Ego, Superego-Psycho-sexual stages
Piaget- Cognitive development Kohlberg- Moral Reasoning Mead/ Cooley- “Self”/ “Looking glass self”
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Erik Erickson This theory views personality as a lifelong process (8 Stages) and success at one stage prepares us for the next challenge. Psycho-Social stages Critics: Not everyone confronts the challenges in the same order. Not clear if failure to meet one challenge predicts failure in other stages Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition of successful life?
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Agents of Socialization
The Family The School The Peer Group The Mass Media Church Government
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The Family Most important agent Parental attention is very important
A loving family produces a happy well-adjusted child. Parental attention is very important Bonding and encouragement Household environment Stimulates development Social position Race, religion, ethnicity, class
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Socialization and Life Course
Each stage of life is linked to the biological process. Societies organize the life course by age. Other factors shape lives: race, class, ethnicity, and gender. Stages present problems and transitions that involve learning.
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Social Interaction In Everyday Life
The process by which people act and react in relation to others
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Social Interaction The symbolic interaction paradigm
What are the other two major theories? Do either have implications here? Humans rely on social structure to make sense out of everyday situations.
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Status A social position that a person holds Status set
All the statuses held at one time Dance partner Boss Friend Harley club member Sports participant Business manager
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Type of Status Ascribed: Involuntary positions
Achieved: Voluntary positions Often the two types work together. What we’re ascribed often helps us achieve other statuses. Master status: Has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life.
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The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status
Role The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status Role set A number of roles attached to a single status Example: status of mother Disciplinarian Sports authority Dietitian Dr. Mom Pretty mom
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Role Conflict and Role Strain
Involves two or more statuses Example: Conflict between role expectations of a police officer who catches her own son using drugs at home–mother and police officer Role strain Involves a single status Example: Manager who tries to balance concern for workers with task requirements–office manager
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Figure Status Set and Role Sets A status set includes all the statuses a person holds at a given time. The status set defines “who we are” in society. The many roles linked to each status define “what we do.”
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Role Exit Role exit: Becoming an “ex” The process of becoming an “ex”
Disengaging from social roles can be very traumatic without proper preparation. The process of becoming an “ex” Doubts form about ability to continue with a certain role. Examination of new roles leads to a turning point at which time one decides to pursue a new direction. Learning new expectations associated with new role. Past role might influence new self.
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The Social Construction of Reality
The process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction. “Street smarts” The Thomas theorem Situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences Ethnomethodology The study of the way people make sense of their everyday surroundings Explores the process of making sense of social encounters
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Goffman’s Dramaturgical Analysis
Examining social interaction in terms of theatrical performances Presentation of self or impression management Efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others. Role performance includes Stage setting Use of props: costume, tone of voice, gesture Example: Going to the doctor and playing the expected patient role.
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