1. Sociology
Semester Exam Review

2. Questions per Chapter Chapter 1- 11 Sociological Perspective
Chapter 2-13 Sociological Investigation
Chapter 3-13 Culture
Chapter 5- 5 Socialization
Chapter 6-10 Social Interaction
Chapter 7-5 Groups/Organizations
Chapter 8- 6 Sexuality
Chapter 9-12 Deviance

3. “...The systematic study of human society ”
What Is Sociology?
“...The systematic study of human society ”
Systematic
Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior
Human society
Group behavior is primary focus; how groups influence individuals and vice versa
At the “heart of sociology”
The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society

4. The Sociological Perspective Peter Berger
Seeing the general in the particular
Sociologists identify general social patterns in the behavior of particular individuals.
Seeing the strange in the familiar
Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a matter of what people decide to do
Understanding that society shapes our lives

5. Sociological Perspective and Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills

6. C. Wright Mills’ Sociological Imagination
The power of the sociological perspective lies not just in changing individual lives but in transforming society.
Society, not people’s personal failings, is the cause of social problems.
The sociological imagination transforms personal troubles into public issues.

7. Sociological Theory
Theory: a statement of how and why facts are related
Explains social behavior to the real world
Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking
Structural-functional
Social-conflict
Symbolic-interaction

8. Structural-Functional Theory
A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as a whole unit, composed of interrelated parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s equilibrium
Also known as functionalism and structural functionalism

9. Functional Analysis Focuses on Social Structure and Social Function
Structure- stable pattern of behavior
Function: consequences of patterns for operation of society
Argues that Social Order is based on Social Consensus

10. Social Functions Manifest Functions- Intended
Latent Functions- Unintended
Dysfunctions- Problematic

11. Critical Evaluations of Functional Analysis
Tends to be conservative
Tends to dismiss change-”systems”
Overlooks the negative

12. Structural-Functional Paradigm
The basics
A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns that shape society as a whole
Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability
Key elements:
Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of social behavior found in social institutions.
Social function refers to the consequences for the operation of society as a whole.

13. Conflict Theory
A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of groups competing for scarce resources. 13

14. Conflict Theory Focuses on Social Tension and Social Change
Is macro level orientation
Argues that Social Order is maintained by direct or indirect exercise of power
“Marginality”-those on the fringe of society
Originated from the work of Karl Marx

15. Social-Conflict Paradigm
The basics:
A macro-oriented paradigm
Views society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change
Key elements:
Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the expense of the majority.
Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to social inequality.
Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations

16. Symbolic-Interaction Theory
A theoretical perspective that focuses on how people use symbols to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another.

17. Interactionism
Focuses on details of everyday life and interaction between people, and on how meaning is assigned to human interaction
Is micro level orientation
Argues that society responds through symbolic interaction
Originated from the studies of Max Weber and George Herbert Mead

18. Who’s Who in the Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
Max Weber
Understanding a setting from the people in it
George Herbert Mead
How we build personalities from social experience
Erving Goffman
Dramaturgical analysis
George Homans & Peter Blau
Social-exchange analysis

19. Critical Evaluation Structural-Functional Social-Conflict
Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender, focuses on stability at the expense of conflict
Social-Conflict
Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual interdependence unify society, pursues political goals
Symbolic-Interaction
Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture, factors such as class, gender & race

20. Sociological Investigation
A logical system that derives knowledge
From direct, systematic observation

21. Three Frameworks for Sociological Investigation
Scientific sociology
The study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior
Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with our senses
Interpretive sociology
The study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world
Critical sociology
The study of society that focuses on the need for change

22. Causation Cause and effect Correlation Spurious correlation
A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another (Hard to establish)
Correlation
A relationship by which two or more variables change together (direct/inverse- positive/negative)
Spurious correlation
An apparent, though false, relationship between two or more variables caused by some other variable
Types of variables
Independent: The variable that causes the change
Dependent: The variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable)

23. Variables Dependent Variable- The variable that changes due to the
Independent Variable- the variable that causes the change
Dependent: Grade on the Exam
Independent(s): The amount of time studying, reading level, energy level, grades on previous tests, etc.

24. Spurious Correlations

25. Shoe Size & Math Skill

26. Scientific Sociology Terminology
Concepts–A mental construct that represents some part of the world in a simplified form
Variables–Concepts whose values change from case to case
Measurement–A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value to a variable

27. Scientific Sociology Terminology
Reliability–Consistency in measurement
Does an instrument provide for a consistent measure of the subject matter?
Validity–Precision in measuring exactly what one intends to measure
Does an instrument actually measure what it sets out to measure?
If measurement is not Reliable, then it can’t be Valid- but needs to be both to be of any value

28. Scientific Sociology Terminology
Objectivity
A state of personal neutrality in conducting research
Value-free research
Weber said sociologists should strive to be dispassionate and detached.
Replication
Repetition of research by other investigators
Helps limit distortion caused by personal values

29. Limitations of Scientific Sociology
Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions.
The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied.
Social patterns change.
Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult.

30. Miligram's Experiment
The Original Miligram Experiment (1961) • VideoSift: Online Video *Quality Control
Administered electric shocks to “Subjects”

31. Sociological Research Methods A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research
Experiment–A research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship between variables (an educated guess)
Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but has no effect on the experiment
“Hawthorne effect”– A change in a subject's behavior caused by the awareness of being studied

32. Control
To be certain that the change in the dependent variable was due to the exposure to the independent variable, the researcher must keep constant other factors that might intrude.
One method is to break group into experimental and control groups.
Experimental group is exposed to independent variable.
Control group is exposed to a placebo.

33. Survey Research A research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview
Population
The people who are the focus of the research
Sample
The part of the population that represents the whole
Random Sample
Drawing a sample from a population so that every element of the population has an equal chance of being selected

34. Culture
The values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects that together form a people’s
way of life

35. Terminology Nonmaterial culture Material culture
The intangible world of ideas created by members of a society
Material culture
The tangible things created by members of a society

36. Terminology Culture shock Ethnocentrism Cultural relativism
Disorientation due to the inability to make sense out of one’s surroundings
Domestic and foreign travel
Ethnocentrism
A biased “cultural yardstick”-Evaluate based on your own Culture’s standards
Cultural relativism
More accurate understanding-cultural perspective-context of the culture

37. Symbols
Anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture
Societies create new symbols all the time.
Reality for humans is found in the meaning things carry with them.
The basis of culture; makes social life possible

38. Symbols
People must be mindful that meanings vary from culture to culture.
Meanings can even vary greatly within the same groups of people.
Fur coats, Confederate flags, etc.

39. Values and Beliefs Values Beliefs
Culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty, which serve as broad guidelines for social living. Values support beliefs.
Beliefs
Specific statements that people hold to be true.
Particular matters that individuals consider to be true or false.

40. Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior
Norms
Rules and expectations by which society guides its members’ behavior
Types
Proscriptive
Should-nots, prohibited
Prescriptive
Shoulds, prescribed like medicine
Mores and Folkways
Mores (pronounced "more-rays")
Widely observed and have great moral significance
Folkways
Norms for routine and casual interaction

41. Social Control Guilt Shame A negative judgment we make about ourselves
Various means by which members of society encourage conformity to norms
Guilt
A negative judgment we make about ourselves
Shame
The painful sense that others disapprove of our actions

42. Cultural Diversity
Subculture–Cultural patterns that set apart some segment of society’s population.
Counterculture–Cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society.

43. Terms Culture integration Culture lag
The close relationships among various elements of a cultural system
Example: Computers and changes in our language
Culture lag
The fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, which might disrupt a cultural system
Example: Medical procedures and ethics
Cultural universals– Traits that are part of every known culture; includes family, funeral rites, and jokes

44. Socialization
The lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential and learn culture

45. Social Experience Socialization Personality
The lifelong social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn patterns of their culture
Personality
A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting
Could a person’s personality develop without social interaction?

46. Nature and Nurture Biological sciences–The role of nature
Elements of society have a naturalistic root.
Social sciences–The role of nurture
Most of who and what we are as a species is learned, or social in nature.
Behaviorism
Nature or nurture?
It is both, but from a sociological perspective, nurture matters more.

47. Social Isolation Effect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments
Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb development.
Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle
Years of isolation left both children damaged and only capable of approximating a normal life after intensive rehabilitation.
Genie
Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent disabilities

48. Theories Freud- Id, Ego, Superego-Psycho-sexual stages
Piaget- Cognitive development
Kohlberg- Moral Reasoning
Mead/ Cooley- “Self”/ “Looking glass self”

49. Erik Erickson
This theory views personality as a lifelong process (8 Stages) and success at one stage prepares us for the next challenge.
Psycho-Social stages
Critics: Not everyone confronts the challenges in the same order.
Not clear if failure to meet one challenge predicts failure in other stages
Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition of successful life?

50. Agents of Socialization
The Family
The School
The Peer Group
The Mass Media
Church
Government

51. The Family Most important agent Parental attention is very important
A loving family produces a happy well-adjusted child.
Parental attention is very important
Bonding and encouragement
Household environment
Stimulates development
Social position
Race, religion, ethnicity, class

52. Socialization and Life Course
Each stage of life is linked to the biological process.
Societies organize the life course by age.
Other factors shape lives: race, class, ethnicity, and gender.
Stages present problems and transitions that involve learning.

53. Social Interaction In Everyday Life
The process by which people act and react in relation to others

54. Social Interaction The symbolic interaction paradigm
What are the other two major theories?
Do either have implications here?
Humans rely on social structure to make sense out of everyday situations.

55. Status A social position that a person holds Status set
All the statuses held at one time
Dance partner
Boss
Friend
Harley club member
Sports participant
Business manager

56. Type of Status Ascribed: Involuntary positions
Achieved: Voluntary positions
Often the two types work together. What we’re ascribed often helps us achieve other statuses.
Master status: Has special importance for social identity, often shaping a person’s entire life.

57. The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status
Role
The behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status
Role set
A number of roles attached to a single status
Example: status of mother
Disciplinarian
Sports authority
Dietitian
Dr. Mom
Pretty mom

58. Role Conflict and Role Strain
Involves two or more statuses
Example: Conflict between role expectations of a police officer who catches her own son using drugs at home–mother and police officer
Role strain
Involves a single status
Example: Manager who tries to balance concern for workers with task requirements–office manager

59. Figure Status Set and Role Sets A status set includes all the statuses a person holds at a given time. The status set defines “who we are” in society. The many roles linked to each status define “what we do.”

60. Role Exit Role exit: Becoming an “ex” The process of becoming an “ex”
Disengaging from social roles can be very traumatic without proper preparation.
The process of becoming an “ex”
Doubts form about ability to continue with a certain role.
Examination of new roles leads to a turning point at which time one decides to pursue a new direction.
Learning new expectations associated with new role.
Past role might influence new self.

61. The Social Construction of Reality
The process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction.
“Street smarts”
The Thomas theorem
Situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences
Ethnomethodology
The study of the way people make sense of their everyday surroundings
Explores the process of making sense of social encounters

62. Goffman’s Dramaturgical Analysis
Examining social interaction in terms of theatrical performances
Presentation of self or impression management
Efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of others.
Role performance includes
Stage setting
Use of props: costume, tone of voice, gesture
Example: Going to the doctor and playing the expected patient role.