1. AS English Language Unit 3 Spoken Interaction Conversation Analysis Conversation Theory

2. Accommodation Theory Developed by Howard Giles (1970s) and other linguists. We adjust our speech to ‘accommodate’ the audience to whom we are addressing. Two categories: A. CONVERGENCE. B. DIVERGENCE

3. Accommodation Theory CONVERGENCE Speaker’s speech style moves closer to the style of the person to whom we are speaking. DIVERGENCE The speakers’ speech styles move further apart.

4. Accommodation Theory CONVERGENCE Decreases the social distance between people. An upper middle class speaker may tone down their RP accent whilst in the presence of working class people (downward convergence). A speaker with a strong local regional accent may conform more towards RP when being interviewed for a job (eg. Promotion) (upward convergence). Research suggests that people are status conscious and more likely to adopt speech styles in keeping with upward convergence.

5. Accommodation Theory CONVERGENCE Mutual convergence: both speakers converge towards each other. Case study: Coupland (1984) Study of the speech of a woman who worked in a Cardiff travel agency. He found that her pronunciation of certain sounds varied according to the social background of her customers and her speech style mirrored that of her customers

6. Accommodation Theory DIVERGENCE Emphasise the difference between speakers. Two supporters of rival football teams engaged in an argument may unconsciously exaggerate their regional accents as a way of asserting regional loyalty and identity.

7. H.P. Grice’s maxims The co-operative principle Participants abide by rules and conventions. H.P. Grice (1975) identified co- operation as the underlying principle for effective conversations. Speakers have common goals and agreed ways of achieving these goals.

8. Grice’s maxims Grice developed four specific maxims which speakers tend to follow: Maxim of quantity: Speaker should say no more or less than what is required. For example, asking directions to Wyke College. An answer which states “Not far away” is clearly not detailed enough, but one which states all the shops on the way to Wyke College is surplus to requirements.

9. Grice’s maxims Maxim of relevance: The utterance should be relevant to the context of the conversation. A speaker who keeps returning to a topic finished several minutes earlier may become disruptive to the effective functioning of the conversation as a whole.

10. Grice’s maxims Maxim of manner: Speakers should avoid ambiguity and obscurity. Giving directions to Wyke College in a confusing sequence would violate this maxim. Maxim of quality: Speakers should be truthful and not say anything which is false.

11. Flouting Grice’s maxims Breaking the maxims is referred to as flouting the maxims. Sometimes we are conscious that we may flout the maxims eg. “I’ll try to be brief”, “Sorry to repeat myself, but..”. Flouting the maxims may cause difficulties in the conversation eg. Someone talking at length and “going around the houses” may cause frustration.

12. Flouting Grice’s maxims Compare and contrast the following: A:Type this letter. B:Please type this letter. Which is the most effective utterance?

13. Flouting Grice’s maxims Often there is a conflict between Grice’s maxims and the Politeness Principle. TASK: THINK OF SOME EXAMPLES WHERE THE MAXIMS MAY BE FLOUTED IN FAVOUR OF BEING POLITE.

14. Politeness Sensitivity towards others. Examples of politeness: Appropriate forms of address. Regard to the social/professional relationship you have with a speaker (eg. Secondary school teacher (Miss) vs. sixth form teacher (Sarah)). Speaking with a degree of formality appropriate to context. Understanding conventions of language for specific situations (eg. Ways of accepting and refusing an invitation). Rules of turn-taking/avoiding overlaps and interruptions where possible.

15. Politeness Brown and Levinson (1987) formulated two types of politeness (positive and negative): POSITIVE POLITENESS: Indication of liking and admiring a person. Paying compliments, taking interest in well- being, enjoying people’s company, etc.

16. Politeness NEGATIVE POLITENESS: Avoid intruding on other people’s lives, taking care not to impose our presence on them or prying into personal affairs. Negative politeness is reflected in indirect, apologetic and respectful language. Saying “Excuse me” before asking a stranger for the time is an example of negative politeness.

17. Politeness Brown and Levinson’s research suggests that some societies and cultures place greater emphasis on either positive or negative politeness. Britain has been stereotyped as placing greater emphasis on negative politeness. TASK: THINK OF SOME BRITISH CONTEXTS IN WHICH NEGATIVE POLITENESS MIGHT OCCUR……

18. The Politeness Principle Developed by Robin Lakoff (1973). Conversation governed by the politeness principle. Three rules of politeness: 1. Don’t impose – similar to negative politeness. Eg. I’m sorry to bother you. 2. Give options – Avoids putting pressure on a person. Eg. It’s entirely up to you. 3. Make receiver feel good – flatter and appreciate people. Eg. What would I do without you?

19. Goffman’s Face theory Irving Goffman (1955). The world is a stage and we are all actors performing on that stage. We present an image of ourselves to others. That image could well be different for different audiences. The image we present is called FACE. ‘Losing’ and ‘saving’ face.

20. Goffman’s Face Theory We generally accept another person’s ‘face’. Occasionally we reject someone’s face as an act of insincerity. Face-threatening act: rejecting or challenging someone’s face eg. “You don’t know what you’re talking about” or turning your back on someone. It is often polite to just accept someone’s face even if we do not agree with the face being presented. Face work is often a way of maintaining status within a conversation.