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2. Redesigning the “Social Contract”: Toward Political Empowerment of Women in the Arab Peninsula Rahma Hugaira Reagan-Fascell Democracy Fellow National Endowment for Democracy July 9, 2007 Please note that the views expressed in this presentation represent the opinions and analysis of the speaker and do not necessarily reflect those of the National Endowment of Democracy.

3. Overview Introduction Social and political background of Arabian peninsula Historical development of women’s political participation The “Social Contract” in the Arabian peninsula Obstacles to women’s political participation Recommendations

4. Introduction Arabian peninsula: Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the UAE and Yemen All except Yemen joined to Gulf Corporate Council (GCC) on May 25, 1981 Population of Arab Gulf States: 33.5 million Population of Yemen: 21 million

5. Distinguishing Characteristics Geography: (isolation) surrounded by three seas Religion: the birthplace of Islam Economy: wealthy oil-dependent states, except Yemen Tribal culture: tribal loyalty is dominant Political System: monarchies, except Yemen Paternal Social System: services without taxation

6. Regimes In Power States: Provide free public services for citizens Ban political parties Citizens can’t change their governments Judiciary is not independent Monarchs: Have unlimited political power Can dissolve the elected parliaments Hold legislative and executive powers Limited wave of political reforms

7. Political Progress Has Been Recent CountryDate of Establishment or Independence First Constitution First Election Women’s Suffrage Saudi ArabiaSept. 23, 193219922005– QatarSept. 3, 197119721999 KuwaitJune 19, 19611962-196319632005 BahrainDecember 16, 1971197320012002 UAEDecember 2, 197119712006 Oman19321996 (The “Basic Law” was promulgated) 2003 Yemen1962 (became a republic) 1993 in unified Yemen 1967 Source: Table composed of data from United Nation Development Programme

8. Political Participation of Women

9. Women Voters are Increasing Percentage of Women Voters

10. Women Candidates are Decreasing Percentage of Women Candidates for Public Office

11. Stages of Women’s Participation in Public Life Independent economy Participation in decision- making Education Kuwait: 31% Bahrain:21% Yemen:28% Oman:17% Saudi:16% UAE:15% Qatar:61%* *women’s participation in governmental positions from 1991–97 Women in the Workforce in 2000:

12. Women’s Political Participation Today StateCabinetParliamentConsultative Council Municipal Councils Saudi Arabia0-00 Kuwait20-2 Bahrain21101 Oman4-2 + 8 in state council 0 Qatar1--1 United Arab Emirates 2--9 Yemen21333 of 6000 Source: Data drawn from the United Nations Development Programme

13. Why is there a Lack of Development? Low percentage of female representation Changes in democratic institutions are slow and weak The spread of traditional loyalties People have become more religious

14. Coalition of Forces: The Social Contract in the Gulf States Linked to each other as a coalition of forces Created tribal and religious autocrats They share common characteristics: Promote patriarchy Fanaticism of sect and tribe Promote the same stereotyping of women (housekeeper) Men hold all the important, influential positions Wahabism Implementing Wahabism’s directives by force Representing Islam as a religion of blind worship, rather than a religion of humanitarian principles Religion Culture Regime

15. Obstacle I: The Absence of Good Governance The “social contract” of ruling families in the Gulf: The contract is between tribal men and ruling family Imposed as strict political order for life Represents tribal, sect, & familial interests first Encourages religious fanaticism and uses tribes to keep societies closed Makes political loyalty a religious obligation Controls the media Absence of fair contract that protects all rights The ‘rule of law’ is suppressed by the ‘rule of the ruler’ Regime

16. The “social contract” of the citizens: Fanatic loyalty to religion and tribe, more than to the rule of law Commitment to autocrats more than to institutions The followers of other sects and weak tribes are marginalized This paves the way for Islamic groups to build up support Yet, there is a growing desire to implement reforms domestically Obstacle I: The Absence of Good Governance Regime

17. Obstacle II: Prevalence of Unfair and Non-egalitarian Interpretations of Islam All the religious scholars and speakers are men Examples of stereotyping of women: “Woman have inferior minds and religiosity” “No successful nation lets a woman rule” “Women are shameful” Religion

18. According to Saudi law women are prohibited from: Working in some fields, for example: engineering Driving a car Traveling alone, unless she has a mahram (relative) with her or a letter from a mahram Being alone: she must stay with a man; can be her husband Being compromised: she cannot stay with men who are not mahrems Being indecent: she must cover her face and hair Using internet cafes Religion Obstacle II: Women under Wahabi Dominance Propagating discrimination of women around the world

19. Culture Obstacle III: Tribal Culture & Male-dominance Tribal culture promotes male interests: All tribal leaders are men Monarchies boost the role of tribes Paternal grip of men in families Almost all lawmakers are men Most decision-making meetings are held during exclusively male sessions (i.e., dewanias in Kuwait ) School curriculums: promote the stereotyping of women Media: promotes negative role of women

20. Culture Promotes negative attitudes toward women Legitimizes violence against women Societies, including women themselves, look down on women Women are seen as a cause for corruption of morals Women are easy to undermine through slander or the spreading of rumors Women are believed to be unqualified to lead Obstacle III: Culture Stereotyping Women

21. Redesigning the “Social Contract”: Toward Political Empowerment of Women in the Arab Gulf Culture Unfair Interpretations Autocrats Women Liberals International Community Work on grassroots Carry out political and social reforms Enforce the rule of law Link feminists with liberals and marginalized sectors Unite the agenda Increase pressure on rulers Break through this coalition:

22. Recommendations in the Field of Religion: Women Should be Muftias Monitor speeches made in mosques concerning women’s rights Set up dialogues for scholars on women’s role in society Run long-term awareness programs for scholars on the role of women Create lobbying groups of women and men to counteract extreme fatwas Support and publicize scholars’ moderate fatwas on women’s issues Religion Actions for Civil Society and the International Community:

23. Religion Officially enable women to be a part of interpretation (ijtehad) Issue official fatwas that reflect the significance of women’s participation Develop the role of official media in promoting women’s rights Recommendations in the Field of Religion: Minimize the Spread of Religious Educational Institutions Against Human Rights Actions for Arab Governments:

24. Culture Actions for Civil Society and the International Community: Set up long-term awareness programs through mosques & media concerning the importance of women in society Produce media materials that tell the stories of successful women Move NGO activities from hotels and conference rooms to the field, where women live Adopt plans to decrease violence against women Recommendations for Culture: Move Activities from Hotels to the Field

25. Culture Include women’s rights and gender equality in educational curriculums Reconstruct the social rules inside the family, based on new constructions of gender Adopt programmatic mechanisms to enforce international agreements Issue protective laws for women against violence, threats and harassment Act seriously to minimize educational and cultural illiteracy among women Recommendations for Culture: Remove Discriminatory Material from the Classroom Actions for Governments:

26. Regime Mobilize women in political parties to exert pressure to give women equal chances to be candidates Give women a percentage of seats in decision-making institutions (quota system) Set up new electoral procedures that ensure equal opportunities and financing for women candidates Enable legislation and international actions to ensure women’s rights in economic and political sectors Recommendations for Regimes: Reserve a Percentage of Seats for Women Political Actions for Governments:

27. Political Action for Civil Society Adopt programmatic mechanisms to enforce international agreements, instead of only working on awareness activities Move NGO activities from hotels and conferences rooms to the field, where most women are located Coordinate between interested institutions and NGOs to create a single, accumulative achievement, instead of wasting efforts Put pressure on parties to give women equal opportunities to run for office

28. Redesigning the “Social Contract”: Toward Political Empowerment of Women in the Arab Gulf Culture Unfair Interpretations Regimes Women Liberals International Community