1. Chemical Bonds

2. Forming Chemical Bonds
The force that holds two atoms together is called a chemical bond .
The valence electrons are the electrons involved in forming chemical bonds.
Elements tend to react to acquire eight electrons. This is call a stable octet.
Noble gases (group VIIIA/18) have this structure (octet) and are inert (does not form bonds).
Atoms can gain, lose, or share electrons to reach an octet.

3. Forming Ions
Positive ions (cations) are formed when atoms lose one or more valence electrons. [Usually these atoms are metals.]
Reactivity of metals (cations) are based on how easily they lose electrons. [ Ionization energy]
Negative ions (anions) are formed when atoms gain one or more valence electrons. [These atoms tend to be non-metals.]
Electronegativity is the ability to attract or gain electrons.

5. Forming Ionic Bonds
Ionic bonds: Complete transfer of electrons between atoms (difference of electronegativity of 1.6 or greater).
Two neutral atoms will form ions. The resulting compound is called an ionic compound.

6. Properties of Ionic Compounds
Form crystal lattice bonding structure.
Example: NaCl (sodium chloride)
High melting point and boiling point due to strong electrostatic charge between the atoms (cation is attracted to anion after the transfer of electrons).
Hard, rigid and brittle solids.
Conducts electricity in liquid state or dissolved in water only.

7. Forming Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds: Sharing of electrons between atoms (difference of electronegativity of less than 1.6).
Occurs usually between elements close to each other on the periodic table (mostly non-metals).
The resulting compound is called a molecule.

8. Properties of Covalent Compounds
Have definite and predictable shapes.
Low melting and boiling points.
Relatively soft solids.
Can exist as solids, liquids or gases.

9. Complete your Venn diagrams
Requirements:
5 for ionic only
5 for covalent only
1 similarity

10. Comparison of Bonding Types
ionic
covalent
, Metal and nonmetal
2 nonmetals
ions
molecules
molten salts
conductive
sharing of
electrons
valence
electrons
transfer of electrons
non-conductive
high mp
low mp
DEN > 1.6
DEN < 1.6

11. The type of bond can usually be calculated by finding the difference in electronegativity of the two atoms that are going together.

12. Electronegativity and Bond Character
The character and type of a chemical bond can be predicted using the electronegativity difference of the elements that are bonded.
Electronegativity is a measure of how strong the atom is pulling on electrons that it is sharing in a bond with another atom.
For identical atoms, which have an electronegativity difference of zero, the electrons are shared equally and the bond is considered nonpolar covalent, which is a pure covalent bond.

13. Determining Number of Covalent Bonds
To determine how many bonds exist in a molecule, use the following formula
N - A = # bonds 2
-- Where N is the # of needed electrons, which is 8 for all elements but H, which is 2.
-- Where A is the # of available electrons, which is the number of valence electrons.

14. Lewis Dot Structures A system of “drawing” bonds
Shows how valence electrons are arranged
Dots represent valence electrons
Pairs of dots represent bonding pairs of electrons.
Show the reaction between sodium and chlorine:
Show the reaction between calcium and bromine:

15. Drawing Lewis Structures
1.Determine the # of bonds needed
2.Draw a skeleton structure.
3.Connect the atoms with the # of bonds. (determined in step 1)
4.Finish by making sure all atoms in the structure have an octet of electrons.
5.Remember, if the structure has a positive charge, it has fewer available electrons, and if it has a negative charge it has more available electrons.

16. Lewis Structure Practice
Draw Lewis Dot Structures for the following molecules and polyatomics:
CO N O Cl H2O SO4 -2

17. Exceptions to the Octet Rule
There are two elements which don’t want an octet of electrons and those are Be (wants 4) and B (wants 6).
Third-row and heavier elements often satisfy the octet rule but can exceed the octet rule using their empty valence d orbitals, especially when surrounded by highly electronegative atoms such as chlorine, bromine, and oxygen.

18. Exceptions to the Octet Rule
The exceptions are easy to recognize-- when you calculate the # of bonds, the formula will give you an answer that makes no sense. If this happens, do the following:
Connect all of the atoms to the central element with one bond.
Give all of the surrounding elements an octet of electrons.
Count the number of electrons you have put in the structure so far.
- If it equals the available # of electrons you calculated, you’re done.
- If it is less than than the available # of electrons you calculates, place
the needed number of electrons around the central element.

19. Exceptions to the Octet Rule
Draw Lewis Dot Structures for the following molecules:
BF PCl SF XeF2

20. Carbon Bonding
Carbon follows the rules previously discussed, but it has a few unique properties.
Carbon is always the central atom in its compounds and it tends to bond to itself.
Carbon always has four bonds.
Anytime you have a choice for a skeleton structure, always go for the most symmetrical option.

21. Carbon Bonding Draw Lewis Dot Structures for the following molecules:
C2H C3H C2H2

22. Resonance
Resonance occurs when you have a double bond which can be placed in more than one location.
More than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a molecule. Examples: O3, NO3-, NO2-, SO22-, CO32-

23. Let’s Practice! H2
SO2
CCl4
SiH4
PCl5
XeCl6
H2O
SO4-2
NO3-
C2H3O2-

24. Molecular Shape
Valence Share Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) model allows us to predict the molecular shape by assuming that the repulsive forces of electron pairs cause them to be as far apart as possible from each other.
Only the valence electron pairs are considered in determining the geometry.

25. Effect of the number of electron pairs around the central atom
4 charge clouds, tetrahedral
2 charge clouds, linear
3 charge clouds, trigonal planar

26. PREDICTING EXPECTED GEOMETRY ACCORDING TO VSEPR THEORY
Lewis dot structure determines the total # of electrons around the central atom.
Multiple bonds (double and triple) count as one.
The number of bonding and nonbonding electron pairs around the central atom determines the geometry of electron pairs and the molecular geometry.
Lone e pairs affect geometry more than bonding pairs.
The shape is referred to as bent if there are lone pairs on the central atom.

27. Molecular Shapes 2,3,4 Electron Pairs

28. Molecular Shape Practice
Example: CO
HCN

29. Molecular Shape Practice
Example:
CO2
PF3

30. Molecular Shape Practice
Example:
PH3