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Chapter
Leadership
and
Trust
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Learning Outcomes
Define leader and leadership
Compare and contrast early leadership theories
Describe the four major contingency leadership theories
Describe modern views of leadership and the issues facing today’s leaders
Discuss trust as the essence of leadership
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3. Who Are Leaders, and What Is Leadership?
Someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority
Leadership
The process of leading a group and influencing that group to achieve its goals
Our definition of a leader is someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority. Leadership is a process of leading a group and influencing that group to achieve its goals. It’s what leaders do.
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4. What Traits Do Leaders Have?
Trait Theories of Leadership
Theories that isolate characteristics (traits) that differentiate leaders from nonleaders
The seven traits shown to be associated with effective leadership are described briefly in Exhibit 11-1
The search for traits or characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders dominated early leadership research efforts. If the concept of traits were valid, all leaders would have to possess specific characteristics.
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However, later attempts to identify traits consistently associated with leadership (the process, not the person) were more successful. The seven traits shown to be associated with effective leadership are described briefly in Exhibit 11-1
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6. What Behaviors Do Leaders Exhibit?
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
Theories that isolate behaviors that differentiate effective leaders from ineffective leaders
A number of studies looked at behavioral styles. We’ll briefly review three of the most popular: Kurt Lewin’s studies at the University of Iowa, the Ohio State studies, and the University of Michigan studies. Then we’ll see how the concepts developed in those studies were used in a grid created for appraising leadership styles
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Leadership Behaviors
Autocratic Style
A leader who centralizes authority, dictates work methods, makes unilateral decisions, and limits employee participation
Democratic Style
A leader who involves employees in decision making, delegates authority, encourages participation in deciding work methods, and uses feedback to coach employees
One of the first studies of leadership behavior was done by Kurt Lewin and his associates at
the University of Iowa. Researchers explored three leadership behaviors
or styles: autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire.
An autocratic style is that of a leader who typically tends to centralize authority, dictate work methods, make unilateral decisions,
and limit employee participation.
A leader with a democratic style tends to involve employees in decision making, delegates authority, encourages participation in deciding
work methods and goals, and uses feedback as an opportunity to coach employees
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8. Leadership Behaviors (cont.)
Laissez-Faire Style
A leader who generally gives employees complete freedom to make decisions and to complete their work however they see fit
Study done by Lewin found laissez-faire style ineffective when compared to either autocratic or democratic leadership styles
Lewin found work quality and group satisfaction were highest in groups with democratic leadership.
The laissez-faire style generally gives his or her employees complete freedom to make decisions and to complete their work in whatever way they see fit. A laissez-faire leader might simply provide necessary materials and answer questions
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Tannenbaum and Schmidt developed a continuum of leader behaviors (see Exhibit 11-2). The continuum illustrates that a range of leadership behaviors, all the way from boss centered (autocratic) on the left side of the model to employee centered (laissez-faire) on the right side
of the model, is possible.
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10. What Did the Ohio State Studies Show?
Identified two categories that accounted for most of the leadership behavior
Initiating Structure
The extent to which a leader defines and structures his or her role and the roles of employees to attain goals
Consideration
The extent to which a leader has job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings
The most comprehensive and replicated of the behavioral theories resulted from research that began at Ohio State University in the
late 1940s. T he researchers eventually narrowed the list down to two categories that accounted for most of the leadership behavior described by
employees. They called these two dimensions initiating structure and consideration.
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11. How Did the University of Michigan Studies Differ?
Also developed two dimensions of leadership behavior
Employee Oriented
A leader who emphasizes the people aspects.
Production Oriented
A leader who emphasizes the technical or task aspects
Employee oriented leaders led to groups that were higher in productivity and job satisfaction
Leadership studies undertaken at the University of Michigan’s Survey Research Center, at about the same time as those being done at Ohio State, had similar research objectives: to locate the behavioral characteristics of leaders that were related to performance effectiveness. The Michigan group also came up with two dimensions of leadership behavior, which they labeled employee oriented and production oriented
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12. What Was the First Contingency Model?
Fiedler Contingency Model
Leadership theory that proposes that effective group performance depends on the proper match between a leader’s style and the degree to which the situation allowed the leader to control and influence
Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire
Measures whether a leader was task or relationship oriented. Leader style assumed fixed.
The first comprehensive contingency model for leadership was developed by Fred Fiedler. The Fiedler contingency model proposed that effective group performance depended upon properly matching the leader’s style and the amount of control and influence in the situation.
To measure a leader’s style, Fiedler developed the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire
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13. Three Contingency Dimensions
Leader-member relations
the degree of confidence, trust, and respect employees had for their leader
Task structure
the degree to which job assignments were formalized and structured
Position power
the degree of influence a leader had over activities such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases
Fiedler’s research uncovered three contingency dimensions that defined the key situational factors in leader effectiveness
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Because Fiedler treated an individual’s leadership style as fixed, there were only two ways to improve leader effectiveness. First, you could bring in a new leader whose style better fit the situation. The second alternative was to change the situation to fit the leader.
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15. How Do Followers’ Willingness and Ability Influence Leaders?
Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
A leadership contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness
Readiness
The extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specific task
Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed a leadership theory that has gained a strong following among management development specialists.16 This model, called situational leadership theory (SLT), is a contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness.
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16. Four Situational Styles
Telling (high task–low relationship)
The leader defines roles and tells people what, how, when, and where to do various tasks
Selling (high task–high relationship)
The leader provides both directive and supportive behavior
SLT uses the same two leadership dimensions that Fiedler identified: task and relationship behaviors. However, Hersey and Blanchard go a step further by considering each as either high or low and then combining them into four specific leadership styles
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Four Styles (cont.)
Participating (low task–high relationship)
The leader and followers share in decision making; the main role of the leader is facilitating and communicating
Delegating (low task–low relationship)
The leader provides little direction or support
SLT essentially views the leader-follower relationship as like that of a parent and a child. Just as a parent needs to relinquish control when a child .becomes more mature and responsible, so, too, should leaders
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18. How Participative Should a Leader Be?
Leader-Participation Model
A leadership contingency theory that’s based on a sequential set of rules for determining how much participation a leader uses in decision making according to different types of situations
This model assumes leader can adapt style to fit different situations.
Back in 1973, Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton developed a leader-participation model that related leadership behavior and participation to decision making.
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19. How Do Leaders Help Followers?
Path-Goal Theory
A leadership theory that says the leader’s job is to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction or support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the organization’s or group’s goals
Currently, one of the most respected approaches to understanding leadership is path-goal theory, which states that the leader’s job is to assist followers in attaining their goals and to provide direction or support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the
goals of the group or organization.
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Developed by Robert House, path-goal theory takes key elements from the expectancy theory of motivation (see Chapter 10).
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21. What Do Contemporary Views of Leadership Tell Us?
Transactional Leaders
Leaders who lead primarily by using social exchanges (or transactions)
Transformational Leaders
Leaders who stimulate and inspire (transform) followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes
Many early leadership theories viewed leaders as transactional leaders; that is, leaders who lead primarily by using social exchanges (or transactions). Transactional leaders guide or motivate followers to work toward established goals by exchanging rewards for their productivity.
But there’s another type of leader—a transformational leader—who stimulates and inspires (transforms) followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes
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22. How Do Charismatic and Visionary Leaders Differ?
Charismatic Leaders
Enthusiastic, self-confident leaders whose personalities and actions influence people to behave in certain ways (Jeff Bezos: Amazon)
Visionary Leadership
The ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves on the present situation
Although the term vision is often linked with charismatic leadership, visionary leadership is different since it’s the ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, and attractive vision of the future that improves upon the present situation. This vision, if properly selected and implemented, is so energizing that it “in effect jump-starts the future by calling forth the skills, talents, and resources to make it happen.
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A meaningful way to describe the team leader’s job is to focus on two priorities: (1) managing the team’s external boundary and
(2) facilitating the team process. These priorities entail four specific leadership roles as shown in Exhibit 11-7
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24. Why Do Leaders Need to Empower Employees?
Empowerment
The act of increasing the decision-making discretion of workers
Those at the lower levels of the organization often have the knowledge to make quick decisions
As we’ve described in different places throughout the text, managers are increasingly leading by not leading; that is, by empowering their employees. Empowerment involves increasing the decision-making discretion of workers
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Because most leadership theories were developed in the United States, they have an American bias. They emphasize follower responsibilities rather than rights; assume self-gratification rather than commitment to duty or altruistic motivation; assume centrality of work and democratic value orientation; and stress rationality rather than spirituality, religion, or superstition
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26. Trust is the Essence of Leadership
Credibility
The degree to which followers perceive someone as honest, competent, and able to inspire
Trust
The belief in the integrity, character, and ability of a leader
Trust, or lack of trust, is an increasingly important issue in today’s organizations. In today’s uncertain environment, leaders need to build, or even
rebuild, trust and credibility.
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