1. STRUCTURAL PROOF THEORY: Uncovering capacities of the mathematical mind Wilfried Sieg Carnegie Mellon

2. Dedekind

3. Dedekind & Kronecker

4. Hilbert

5. Gödel & Turing

6. Hilbert, Zürich 1917 We must – that is my conviction – take the concept of the specifically mathematical proof as an object of investigation, just as the astronomer has to consider the movement of his position, the physicist must study the theory of his apparatus, and the philosopher criticizes reason itself.

7. Hilbert, Hamburg 1927 The fundamental idea of my proof theory is none other than to describe the activity of our understanding, to make a protocol of the rules according to which our thinking actually proceeds.

8. PART 1 Existential axiomatics

9. Hilbert, Paris 1900 To prove that they [i.e., the axioms of arithmetic] are not contradictory, that is, that a finite number of logical steps based upon them can never lead to contradictory results.

10. Hilbert’s structural definition We think a system of things; we call them numbers and denote them by a, b, c …. We think these numbers in certain mutual relations, the precise and complete description of which is given by the following axioms: …

11. Existence of an infinite system Without such a proof “it would remain doubtful, whether the concept of such a system does not perhaps contain internal contradictions.” Dedekind to Keferstein, 1890

12. …the relations or laws which are derived exclusively from the conditions [for a simply infinite system] and are therefore always the same in all ordered simply infinite systems, …. Dedekind 1888

13. Dedekind to Lipschitz All technical expressions [Kunst- ausdrücke] can be replaced by arbitrary, newly invented (up to now meaningless) words; the edifice must not collapse, if it is correctly constructed, and I claim that my theory of real numbers withstands this test.

14. PART 2 Formal proofs

15. Frege I do not mean that in a narrow sense, as if it were subject to an algorithm the same as … ordinary addition or multiplication, but only in the sense that there is an algorithm at all, i.e., a totality of rules which governs the transition from one sentence or from two sentences to a new one in such a way that nothing happens except in conformity with these rules.

16. Calculi A  A v BB  A v B (A  C)  (B  C)  (A v B  C)

17. Calculi A  A v BB  A v B (A  C)  (B  C)  (A v B  C)   A   B   A v B   A v B  A  C  B  C   C

18. Calculi   A   B  A v B   A v B  A v B  A  C  B  C  C

19. Calculi   A   B  A v B   A v B  A v B  A  C  B  C  C   A   B  A v B   A v B  A;   C  B;  C  C

20. Von Neumann, 1924 The undecidability is even the conditio sine qua non for the contemporary practice of mathematics, using as it does heuristic methods, to make any sense.

21. Von Neumann, 1924 The undecidability is even the conditio sine qua non for the contemporary practice of mathematics, using as it does heuristic methods, to make any sense. The very day on which the undecidability does not obtain any more, mathematics as we now understand it would cease to exist; …

22. Bidirectional reasoning Forward (from premises) by E-rules Example: argument by cases Backward (from a goal) by inverted I-rules Example: conditional proof

23. Local axiomatics I 1. Local axioms: representability, diagonal lemma, derivability conditions 2. Proof-specific definitions: Gödel and Löb sentences 3. Leading idea: moving between object- and meta-theory

24. PART 3 Conceptually structured search

25. Turing1948 That which is required in addition we call initiative. This statement will have to serve as definition. Our task is to discover the nature of this residue as it occurs in man, and try and copy it in machines.

26. Local axiomatics II 1. Local axioms: lemmata for injective, surjective and bijective functions 2. Proof-specific definitions: fixed-point; bijection in the main claim 3. Leading idea: define a 2-partition

27. Byrne’s diagram

28. Elementary geometric facts SAS Triangles are equal when they have the same base and when their third vertex lies on the same parallel to the base. A diagonal divides a rectangle into two equal triangles.

29. Byrne (with labels)

30. Local axiomatics III 1. Local axioms: the elementary geometric facts mentioned above 2. Proof-specific definitions: ??? 3. Leading idea: partitioning of squares into equal parts

31. Chinese argument

32. PART 4 Cognitive aspects

33. According to Dedekind (1854) The need to introduce new and appropriate notion arises ultimately from the fact that human intellectual powers are imperfect. Their limitation leads us to frame the object of a science in different forms and introducing a concept means, in a certain sense, formulating a hypothesis concerning the inner nature of a science.

34. Dedekind (1854) Essentially, there would be no more science for a man gifted with an unbounded understanding – a man for whom the final conclusions, which we obtain through a long chain of inferences, would be immediately evident truths; ….

35. Bernays 1946 In this way we recognize something like intelligence and reason that should not be regarded as a container of [items of] a priori knowledge, but as a mental activity that consists in reacting to given situations with the formation of experimentally applied categories.

36. Hilbert 1932

37. Proofs are not “mere collections of atomic processes, but rather complex combinations with a highly rational structure”.

38. There remains the real question of the actual structure of mathematical proofs and their strategy. It is a topic long given up by mathematical logicians, but one which still – properly handled – might give us some real insight.