1. Identifying relative positions of structures can be difficult!
Describing and Identifying Relative Positions & Locations of Structures
Identifying relative positions of structures can be difficult!

2. Overview Anatomical Position Terms of Relationship/Comparison Joints
Types
Names
Location
Movements
Planes of Motion
Axis of Rotation
Degrees of Freedom

3. Anatomical Position
A position used as a reference when describing parts of the body in relation to each other
Used in conjunction with terms of relationship, terms of comparison, and terms of movement
Allows for a standard way of documenting where one part of the body is in relation to another, regardless of whether the body is standing, lying down, or in any other position

4. Anatomical Position -Eyes and toes pointing forward
-Standing erect
-Eyes and toes pointing forward
-Feet together with arms by the side
-Palms of the hand are facing up
-Thumbs pointed out (laterally)

5. Terms of Relationship/Comparison
Superior (cranial): Above, or towards the top of the body
Inferior (caudal): Below, or towards the bottom of the body
Anterior: Towards the front of the body
Posterior: Towards the back of the body
Medial: Towards the center of midline of the body
Lateral: Towards the outside, or away from the midline of the body
Proximal: Nearer to the point of origin of a muscle
Distal: Further from the point of origin of a muscle

6. Terms of relationship/Comparison
Superior (cranial)
Proximal
Anterior
Posterior
Medial
Lateral
Distal
Proximal
Distal
Inferior
Inferior

7. Terms of Relationship/Comparison
Superficial: toward or at the body surface
Deep: away from the body surface; more internal

8. Terms of Relationship/Comparison
Hand Foot
Dorsum
(Dorsal
Surface)
Palm
(Palmar
Surface)
Dorsum
(Dorsal
Surface)
Sole
(Plantar
Surface)

9. Terms of Relationship/Comparison
Prone: face downward; stomach lying
Supine: lying on the back; face upward

10. Terms of Laterality Unilateral: One Side Bilateral: Two Sides
Ipsilateral:
Same Side of Body
Contralateral: Opposite Side of Body

11. The axis is ________________ to the atlas
The radius is ________________ to the ulna
The clavicle is _____________ to the scapula
The carpals are _____________ to the metacarpals
False ribs are _______________ to T8-T10
The ilium is ______________ to the ischium
The fibula is ________________ to the tibia
The hyoid is ___________________ to the mandible
A barbell chest press is performed ________

12. 10. The femoral condyles are _____________ to the tibial tuberosity
11. The foramen magnum is ____________ to the spinous process
12. The skin is __________________ to the heart
13. Push-ups are performed ______________
14. The greater trochanter of the femur is ________________ to the pelvic crest
15. Demonstrate the following exercises:
Unilateral Leg Curl
Bilateral Overhead Shoulder Press
Ipsilateral Squat and Biceps Curl
Contralateral Forward Lunge and Lateral Shoulder Raise

13. Joints = Articulation Articulation: two or more bones attach
Two Fundamental Functions of Joints:
Allow the skeleton to have mobility
Hold the skeleton together

14. Classification of Joints
Functional Classification:
Based on the amount of movement allowed by the joint
Three Functional Classifications:
Synarthrosis
Amphiarthrosis
Diarthrosis
Structural Classification:
Based on the material binding or holding the bones together and whether or not a joint cavity is present
Three Structural Classifications:
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial

15. Functional Classification of Joints
Arthroses: joint
Synarthroses
Immovable joints
Fibrous joints: sutures in the skull
Amphiarthroses
Slightly movable joints
Cartilaginous joints: ribs
Diarthroses
Freely movable joint
Synovial joints: shoulder

16. Structural Classification of Joints
Fibrous:
The bones are joined by fibrous tissues
No joint cavity
Most are immovable (synarthroses)
Three Types:
Suture
Syndesmosis
Gomphosis

17. Suture Sutures occur only between the bones of the skull
Wavy articulating edges are interlocked
Hold bones tightly together, but allow for growth during youth

18. Syndesmosis Radius and Ulna Tibia and Fibula
Bones are connected by a ligament
Movement varies from immovable to variably movable
Examples include the connection between:
Radius and Ulna
Tibia and Fibula

19. Gomphosis The only example is the articulation of a tooth
Tooth attaches to the bony socket

20. Cartilaginous Joints Articulating bones are joined by cartilage
Slightly movable or immovable
No joint cavity
Examples- epiphyseal plates of long bones, joints between costal cartilage of first rib and manubrium, intervetebral joints, and pubic symphysis

21. Cartilaginous Joints

22. Synovial Joints
Articulating bones are separated by a joint cavity containing fluid
All are freely movable; diarthroses
Examples: all limb joints and most joints of the body

23. Synovial Joints: Distinguishing Features
Articular Cartilage: tough, rubbery tissue that forms the surface of bones within joints
Synovial Fluid: a very slippery, oil-like substance which is produced by the body to lubricate the joints and tendon. Comparable to an ice skate on ice
Joint Cavity: a space containing a small amount of fluid

24. Synovial Joints: Distinguishing Features
Articular Capsule: it keeps synovial fluid from leaking out the joint
Reinforcing Ligaments: prevent separation of joints and restrict joint movement
Bursa: A fluid-containing sac near a joint that reduces friction between a tendon and a bone, or between a bone and skin during movement
Tendons: Tough cords of tissue that connect muscles to bones.
The rotator cuff tendons are a group of tendons that connect the deepest layer of muscles to the humerus

25. General Structure of a Synovial Joint

26. General Structure of a Synovial Joint

27. Types of Synovial Joints
Six Major Categories:
Ball and Socket
Condyloid
Saddle
Pivot
Hinge
Gliding

28. Ball and Socket Joint
A spherical or hemispherical head of one bone articulates with a cuplike socket of another
Examples: Shoulder and Hip

29. Condyloid Joint
Oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary depression in another
Both articular surfaces are oval
Examples: Wrist, Knuckles of Fingers and Toes

30. Saddle Joint Similar to condyloid joints but allow greater movement
Each articular surface has both a concave and a convex surface
Example: Knuckle of Thumb

31. Pivot Joint
Rounded end of one bone protrudes into “sleeve,” or ring, composed of bone or ligaments of another bone
Examples: Atlas and Axis and Radius and Ulna

32. Hinge Joint
Cylindrical projection of one bone fits into a trough-shaped surface on another
Resembles action of a hinge
Examples: Elbow, Ankle, Knee, Fingers and Toes

33. Gliding Joint Articular surfaces are essentially flat
Allow only slipping or gliding movements
Examples: Vertebrae, Carpals in the Wrist, and Tarsals in the Ankle

34. Synovial Joint Stability
Stability is determined by:
The Shape of Articular surfaces – determines what movements are possible
The Number and Position of Ligaments – unite bones and prevent excessive or undesirable motion
Muscle Tone – most important – tendons that cross joints act as stabilizing factors and are kept tight by muscle tone

35. Body Movement
Body movement occurs when muscles contract across joints and their insertion moves toward their origin
Muscle origin: muscle attached to the immovable or less movable bone
Muscle insertion: muscle attached to the movable bone
Kinesiology: study of the movement of body parts

36. General Types of Synovial Joint Movement
Angular
Gliding
Rotation
Special

37. Angular Movement Change of angle between bones
Movements that produce an increase or decrease in the angle between bones and include:
Flexion
Extension
Abduction
Adduction
Lateral Flexion
Plantarflexion
Dorsiflexion

38. Angular Movement Terminology
Flexion
Bending movement that decreases the angle of a joint
biceps curl, leg curl, crunch, shoulder raise
Extension
Bending movement that increases the angle of a joint
squat, leg press, triceps press down

39. Angular Movement Terminology
Lateral Flexion
Lateral movement away from the midline of the body
Moving the spine to the side (left or right)
Moving the neck toward the shoulder
Reduction
Return from the anatomical position from lateral movement

40. Angular Movement Terminology
Abduction
Movement of limb away from midline of body
Lateral DB raise, standing BB shoulder press
Adduction
Movement of limb toward body midline of body
Lat pull-down, pull-up
Circumduction
Moving limb so that it describes a cone in space
Combination of flexion, abduction, extension and adduction in succession

41. Angular Movement Terminology
Horizontal Adduction
Movement of the humerus or femur across the midline of the body
Examples: cable fly, DB chest press, hip adductor machine, push-up
Horizontal Abduction
Movement of the humerus or femur away from the midline of the body
Examples: seated row, reverse cable fly, hip abductor machine

42. Rotation The turning of a bone around its own vertical axis Examples:
Between C1 and C2 vertebrae
Hip and Shoulder joints
Forearm Joint

43. Rotation Terminology Medial Rotation (internal rotation):
Rotation of the limb where the anterior surface of the limb moves medially
Lateral Rotation (external rotation):
Rotation of the limb where the anterior surface of the limb moves laterally

44. Gliding Movement Terminology
One flat bone surface glides or slips over another bone (back-and-forth, side-to-side)
Wrist Abduction (radial deviation):
Laterally flexing the wrist toward the thumb
Wrist Adduction (ulnar deviation):
Laterally flexing the wrist toward the pinky
Wrist Adduction
Wrist Abduction

45. Special Movements
Supination and Pronation
Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion
Inversion and Eversion
Protraction and Retraction
Elevation and Depression
Opposition

46. Forearm Supination and Pronation
Supination: laterally rotating the forearm and hand so that the palm faces forward or upward (radius lies parallel to the ulna)
Pronation: medially rotating the forearm and hand so that the palm faces downward

47. Ankle Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion
Dorsiflexion: movement of the ankle which decreases the angle between the foot and the leg
Pointing the toes up
Plantarflexion: movement of the ankle which increases the angle between the foot and the leg
Pointing the toes down
Examples: walking, biking, calf raise, tapping your toes, jump rope

48. Ankle Inversion and Eversion
Inversion: movement of the foot in which the sole turns toward the midline
Eversion: movement of the foot in which the sole turns outward away from the midline
Examples: soccer-style kick, ice-skating, roller blading, hockey

49. Protraction, Retraction, Elevation, and Depression

50. Opposition

51. Putting It All Together!
C1 and C2
Spine
Shoulder
Elbow
Forearm
Wrist
Hip
Knee
Ankle

52. C1 and Skull and C1 and C2 C1 and Skull: Atlantooccipital Joint
Type: Saddle
Movements: Mainly limited nodding
Flexion
Extension
C1 and C2:
Atlantoaxial Joint
Type: Pivot
Movements: Rotation

53. Vertebral Column Name: Intervertebral Joints Type: Fibrocartilaginous
Movements (All but limited degrees):
Flexion
Extension
Lateral Flexion
Circumduction

54. Shoulder Joint Glenohumeral Joint Type: Ball in Socket Movements:
Flexion
Extension
Abduction
Adduction
Horizontal Abduction
Horizontal Adduction
Medial Rotation
Lateral Rotation
Circumduction

55. Elbow Joint
Humeroulnar Joint
Type: Hinge
Movements:
Flexion
Extension

56. Forearm Joint Radioulnar joint Type: Pivot Movements: Supination
Pronation

57. Wrist Joint Radiocarpal Joint Type: Condyloid Movements: Flexion
Extension
Abduction
Adduction
Cicumduction
Note: No true rotation at this joint.

58. Hip Joint Acetabulofemoral Joint Type: Ball and Socket Movements:
Flexion
Extension
Abduction
Adduction
Horizontal Abduction
Horizontal Adduction
Medial Rotation
Lateral Rotation
Circumduction

59. Knee Joint
Tibiofemoral Joint
Type: Modified Hinge
Movements:
Flexion
Extension

60. Ankle Joints Talocrural Joint Type: Hinge Movements: Plantarflexion
Dorsiflexion
Subtalar Joint
Type: Gliding
Inversion
Eversion

61. Scapula Scapulothoracic Joint Movements:
Retraction (adduction): where the scapula moves towards the spine
Seated Row
Protraction (abduction): where the scapula moves away from the spine
Push-Up

62. Scapula Elevation: where the scapula moves upwards towards the ear
Shoulder Shrug
Depression: where the scapula moves downwards towards the hips
Lat Pull-Down

63. Scapula
Upward Rotation: where the scapula rotates clockwise approximately 30 degrees. (Elevation usually occurs with upward rotation)
DB Shoulder Press
Downward Rotation: the movement of the scapula returning from the upward rotated position, where the humerus is brought back along side the body. (Depression usually occurs with downward rotation)
Lat pull-down 

64. Planes of Motion
A body plane is an imaginary flat surface that is used to define a particular area of anatomy.
The anatomical planes are a universally used method describing human movement
Movement occurs in 1 plane if you are moving parallel to that plane

65. Anatomical Planes
Frontal Plane: divides the body into front and back halves
Transverse Plane: divides the body into
top and bottom halves
Sagittal Plane: divides the body into right and left halves

66. Anatomical Planes
Sagital Plane
Frontal Plane
Transverse Plane

67. Sagital Plane
Sagital Plane Divides the Body into Right and Left Halves.
Movements Involve Flexion/Extension and Plantarflexion/Dorsiflexion
Examples:
Bicep curls Triceps Extension
Knee Extensions Leg Curl
Abdominal Crunches -Back Extension
Running Walking
Stair Climbing Squats
Cycling
Calf Raises
Leg Press

68. Frontal Plane
Frontal Plane Divides the Body into Front and Back Halves.
Movements Involve Abduction/Adduction; Inversion/Eversion; Lateral Flexion; Wrist Abduction/Adduction; Scapular Elevation/Depression/Upward Rotation/Downward Rotation
Examples:
Jumping Jacks Shoulder Shrug
Pull Up (pronated grip) - Lateral Step-Up
Spinal Lateral Flexion Overhead DB Shoulder Press Side Lunges
Lateral DB Raise
Lat Pull Down (pronated grip)

69. Transverse Plane
Transverse Plane Divides the Body Horizontally into Superior and Inferior Halves.
Movements Involve Medial and Lateral Rotation; Circumduction; Supination/Pronation; Horizontal Abduction/Adduction; Scapular Retraction/Protraction
Examples:
Cable Fly Cable Chop
Pronation of hands
Supination of hands
Bench Press (pronated grip)
Sporting Activity Movements like Throwing
Reverse DB Fly
Seated Wide Row (pronated grip)

70. Axis of Rotation
When analyzing movement think of an axis as a rod through a joint allowing rotation around it and perpendicular to the plane it is being passed
Sagital plane has a medial-to-lateral axis perpendicular to the sagital plane
Frontal plane has an anterior-posterior axis perpendicular to the frontal plane
Transverse plane has a vertical axis perpendicular to the transverse plane

71. Axis of Rotation Uniaxial: Biaxial: Multiaxial: Movement in one plane
Hinge joint (humeroulnar)
Biaxial:
Movement in two planes
Condyloid joint (radiocarpal) and Saddle joint (carpometacarpal)
Multiaxial:
Movement in or around all three planes
Ball and socket joint (glenohumeral and femoracetabular)

72. One DOF (degree of freedom):
Degrees of Freedom
Degrees of Freedom:
Number of planes that any joint can move through simultaneously
One DOF (degree of freedom):
Uniaxial joint. The elbow is an example because it can only flex and extend in the sagital plane.

73. Degrees of Freedom 2 DOF: 3 DOF:
Biaxial joint like the wrist because it can flex and extend in the sagital plane and abduct and adduct in the frontal plane.
3 DOF:
Triaxial joint like the shoulder, spine and hip which can flex and extend in the sagital plane, abduct and adduct in the frontal plane and rotate in the transverse plane