1. The Eye and the Nervous System
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2. The Retina

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The Retina
Contains photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) and associated interneurones and sensory neurones.
The photoreceptor cells are at the back of the retina, and the light has to pass through several layers of neurones to reach them.
2 kinds of photoreceptors – rods and cones
Form synapses with special interneurones called bipolar neurones
These in turn synapse with sensory neurones called galglion cells.
The axons of the ganlion cells cover the inner surface of the retina and form the optic nerve (about a million axons) that lead to the brain

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Visual Transduction
This is the process by which light initiates a nerve impulse.
The structure of a rod cell:
Detection of light is carried out on the membrane disks
These disks contain thousands of molecules of rhodopsin (photoreceptor molecule)

5. Visual Transduction Rhodopsin consists of:
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Visual Transduction
Rhodopsin consists of:
Opsin (membrane bound protein)
Retinal (covalently-bound prosthetic group) sensitive part
Retinal is made from vitamin A
Retinal is the light sensitive part -
exists in 2 forms: cis and trans forms
Vitamin deficiency causes night blindeness

6. Rhodopsin with cis retinal Rhodopsin with trans retinal
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Visual Transduction
In the dark retinal is in the cis form.
When it absorbs a photon of light it quickly switches to the trans form.
This changes the shape of the opsin protein – a process called bleaching
Light- fast (ms)
Rhodopsin with cis retinal
Rhodopsin with trans retinal

7. Rhodopsin with cis retinal Rhodopsin with trans retinal
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Visual Transduction
The reverse reaction (trans to cis) requires an enzyme reaction and is very slow (taking a few minutes)
This process requires ATP, as rhodopsin has to be resynthesised
This explains why you are initially blind when you walk from sunlight to a dark room:
in the light almost all your retinal was in the trans form, and it takes some time to form enough cis retinal to respond to the light indoors.
Light- fast (ms)
Rhodopsin with cis retinal
Rhodopsin with trans retinal
Dark - slow (mins)

8. Visual Transduction Bleaching of the rhodopsin in a rod cell i
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Visual Transduction
Bleaching of the rhodopsin in a rod cell i
Alters the permeability of the membrane to Na+
nerve impulse
sensory neurone in the optic nerve
to the brain

9. Visual Transduction Rhodopsin controls sodium channels
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Visual Transduction
Rhodopsin controls sodium channels
Rhodopsin with cis retinal opens sodium channels (absence of light)
Rhodopsin with trans retinal closes sodium channels (light)

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In the Dark…
In the dark the channel is open  Na+ flow in can cause rod cells to depolarise.
Therefore in total darkness, the membrane of a rod cell is polarised
Therefore rod cells release neurotransmitter in the dark
However the synapse with bipolar cells is an inhibitory synapse i.e. the neurotransmitter stops impulse

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In the Light…
As cis retinal is converted to trans retinal, the Na+ channels begin to close i
less neurotransmitter is produced. If the threshold is reached, the bipolar cell will be depolarised i
forms an impulse which is then passed to the ganglion cells and then to the brain

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14. Rods and Cones Rods Cones Outer segment is rod shaped
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Rods and Cones
Rods
Cones
Outer segment is rod shaped
Outer segment is cons shaped
109 cells per eye, distributed throughout the retina, so used for peripheral vision.
106 cells per eye, found mainly in the fovea, so can only detect images in centre of retina.
Good sensitivity
Poor sensitivity
Only 1 type  monochromatic vision
3 types (R, G & B)  colour vision
Many rods connected to one bipolar cell  poor acuity = poor resolution
Each cone is connected to one bipolar cell  good acuity = good resolution

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Colour Vision
3 different cone cells. Each have a different form of opsin (they have the same retinal)
3 forms of rhodopsin are sensitive to different parts of the spectrum
10% red cones
45% blue cones

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Colour Vision
Coloured light will stimulate these 3 cells differently - by comparing the nerve impulses from the 3 kinds of cones the brain can detect any colour
Red light  stimulates R cones
Yellow light  stimulates R and G cones equally
Cyan light  stimulates B and G cones equally
White light  stimulates all 3 cones equally
Called the trichromatic theory of colour vision
The red, green and blue opsin proteins are made by three different genes. The green and red genes are on the X chromosome, which means that males have only one copy of these genes (i.e. they’re haploid for these genes). About 8% of males have a defect in one or other of these genes, leading to red-green colour blindness. Other forms of colour blindness are also possible, but are much rarer.

17. Colour Vision
When we look at something the image falls on the fovea and we see it in colour and sharp detail.
Objects in the periphery of our field of view are not seen in colour, or detail.
The fovea has high density of cones.
Each cone has a synapse with one bipolar cell and one ganglion  each cone sends impulses to the brain about its own small area of the retina  high visual acuity

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Accommodation
Refers to the ability of the eye to alter its focus so that clear images of both close and distant objects can be formed on the retina
The lens shape can be altered by suspensory ligaments and the ciliary muscles. This adjusts the focus

19. Accommodation Distant objects:
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Accommodation
Distant objects:
Light rays are almost parallel so do not need much refraction to focus onto the retina.
The lens therefore needs to be thin and “weak” (i.e. have a long focal length).
To do this the ciliary muscles relax, making a wider ring and allowing the suspensory ligaments (which are under tension from the pressure of the vitreous humour) to pull the lens out, making it thinner.

20. Accommodation Close objects:
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Accommodation
Close objects:
Light rays are likely to be diverging, so need more refraction to focus them onto the retina.
The lens therefore needs to be thick and “strong” (i.e. have a short focal length).
To do this the ciliary muscles contract, making a smaller ring and taking the tension off the suspensory ligaments, which allows the lens to revert to its smaller, fatter shape.

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The Iris
Regulates the amount of light entering the eye so that there is enough light to stimulate the cones, but not enough to damage them
Composed of 2 sets of muscles:
Circular and radial  have opposite affects (antagonistic)

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The Iris
By contracting and relaxing these muscles the pupil can be constricted and dialeted

23. The Iris Is under control of the autonomic nervous system
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The Iris
Is under control of the autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic Nerve  pupil dilation
Parasympathtic Nerve  pupil constriction
The drug atropine inhibits the parasympathetic nerve, causing pupil to dilate

24. The Iris The iris is a good example of a reflex arc: stimulus
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The Iris
The iris is a good example of a reflex arc:
stimulus
More Light
receptor
Rods and Cones
Sensory neurone
coordinator
Brain
Motor neurone
effector
Iris muscles
response
Pupil constricts