1. SOCIETAL ISSUES IN COUNSELING
Paul Pedersen
University of Alabama at Birmingham
Dept of Human Studies

2. 1.1 The culture-centered premise of counseling
behaviors are learned and displayed in a cultural context
accurate assessment, meaningful understanding and appropriate intervention are context dependent
the cultural context of counseling is complicated

3. 1.2.  The cultural context

4. 1.3. Multiculturalism has evolved from a method to a theory
emphasizing both the parts and the whole
the generic application of culture
making all theories culture-centered

5. 1.4. The broad definition of culture
ethnographic, demographic, status and affiliation
within-group differences exceed between-group differences
emic and etic are two perspectives of the same reality
culture is the complex totality of the environment
culture is dynamic according to what is salient

6. 1.5. The culturally encapsulated counselor
defines reality according to one set of assumptions
is insensitive to cultural variations among individuals
protects unreasoned assumptions without proof
seeks technique-oriented short-term solutions
refuses to evaluate contrary viewpoints

7. 1.6. Defining balance in the client's cultural context
the rule of opposites reconciles discord in harmony
reflects the organimic systems of holistic health

8. 1.7. Examples of balance in counseling
positive implications of negatives
negative potentials of positives
tolerance for ambiguity
resist simple solutions
sensitivity to complicated collective forces
sensitive to changes in the client
sensitivity to changes in the counselor
ability to adjust interviewer influence
ability to maintain harmony in the interview

9. 1.8. Implications of balance in counseling
knowledge must go beyond rationality to include feelings
relationships are important
westernized perspectives are incomplete
change is not inevitably positive
we do not control our environment
recovery skills get us out of trouble
training of counselors must become more inclusive
more emphasis on culture is need among counselors
research has failed to develop  multicultural  theory

10. 1.9. Underlying assumptions of culture-centered counseling
culture controls behavior
each culture interprets counseling differently
values are constructed by cultures
behavior is displayed in a cultural context
the same cultural context is experienced differently
cultural patterns give meaning to cultural contexts
aggregate data can lead to stereotyping
as the cultural context changes behaviors also change
only when the context has changed will individuals change
meaning is constructed in each cultural context

11. 1.10. Describing cultural identity

12. 2.1. Managing culturally learned assumptions
people are both similar and different at the same time
culture is complex and not simple
behaviors are not meaningful data
not all racism is intentional
we are vulnerable to cultural encapsulation
inclusion is balanced with exclusion
medical model is balanced with educational model
clients depend on their own internal dialogue first

13. 2.2. The cross-cultural trade off for conflict management

14. 3.1. The historical context of culture
began in  17th  and  18th  century Europe to defend colonialism
distinguished civilized people from savage primitives

15. 3.2. The recent popularity of culture in the social sciences
awareness of consequences of development
need for a  postcolonial  perspective
social sciences have been internationalized
national liberation movements have increased
cross cultural psychology has developed
activist social scientists of the  60s  are in power
interdisciplinary cooperation has become more popular
new forms of cultural diversity have emerged
educational exchanges have increased
a growing interest in indigenous psychology

16. 3.3.  The "racial" context
race has been discredited as a scientific construct
race continues important as a sociopolitical construct
as few as 3 races and as many as 37 have been suggested
Philippe  Rushton 's (1988) Asian-Blacks-Whites
Arthur Jensen's (1992) intelligence research
Hernsteins  (1994) bell curve
racism is prejudice plus power to impose it
Pinderhuges  (1984) on the nature of powerlessness

17. 3.4. The Contact Hypothesis
when groups come together under favorable conditions positive consequences occur
when groups come together under unfavorable conditions negative consequences occur
most spontaneous group contact is under unfavorable conditions

18. 3.5. High Context cultures and Low Context cultures
some cultures put more emphasis on context than others
most developed cultures are low context
HC  is where the information is internalized concrete
LC is where information is in the depersonalized abstract

19. 3.6. The five stages of culture shock and the U-curve
initial contact honeymoon stage
disintegration and self blame
reintegration and anger
integration of similarities and differences
biculturalism

20. 3.7. The ideological context of "explicit" moral exclusion
biased evaluations with unflattering comparisons
derogation disparaging and denigrating
fear of contamination
expanding the target to legitimize victimization
accelerating harm doing in destructive acts
approving and condoning destructive behavior
reducing moral standards to accept harmful behavior
blaming the victim
self-righteous comparisons
desecration to demonstrate contempt

21. 3.8. The ideological context of "implicit" moral exclusion
group think 
transcendent ideologies to glorify the group
deindividuation  and anonymity
moral engulfment to replace ethics
psychological distancing
technical orientation
double standards
unflattering comparisons

22. 3.8. The ideological context of "implicit" moral exclusion (continue)
euphemisms
displacing responsibility to higher authorities
diffusing responsibility to the collective
concealing the effects
glorifying violence
normalizing violence
temporal containment by making exceptions

23. 3.9 The future context alternatives
authoritarian future
chaotic future
pluralist future
learning the facility for our own survival
chaos and complexity theory of nonlinear self-organizing dynamics

24. 4.1 The Westernization of counseling
counseling is spreading from west to east with modernization and urbanization a one directional approach to reduce pain
Western is a political not a geographical term
Westernization is also scientific acculturation
Western are more  idiocentric  and competitive
Non-Western cultures more  collectivistic 
the dangers of  pathologizing  mystical experiences
the rise of " Easternization "

25. 4.2. Non-Western assertions
reincarnation
individual self and cosmic SELF
de-emphasize individualism with social relationships
constructive dependency
interdependence in parent-child relationships
Japanese emphasis on obligation and self-sacrifice

26. 4.2. Non-Western assertions (continue)
parents model social behavior patterns
personality patterns learned from roles
paradoxical personality patterns
the constructive role of rigid authority
experience as well as logic provide data
life is dialectical balance of opposites
everything is political

27. 5.1. The spiritual counselor inside the person
counselors with a secular orientation are disadvantaged
inside the person resources are important
globally talk therapy is the exotic choice

28. 5.2. The rationale for counselors knowing about religion
a high percentage of the population is religious
people in crisis tend to rely more on spiritual
therapy is not exclusively a secular process
therapists are typically less religious than clients therapists are typically not well informed about religion

29. 5.3. The role of alternative therapies based on spiritual sources
50% of U.S. 75% of Europe and 80% of world relies on alternative therapies
healing is following the straight path
illness is being "tangled" requiring "straightening"
self-righting mechanisms
conventional and alternative therapies complementary

30. 5.4. The cosmology of the Toba Bataks
cosmos includes underworld, middleworld  and upperworld  time has quality as well as quantity
space is not neutral
the symbol is the thing it symbolizes
all things have religious/spiritual meaning
the need to take care of one's  tondi 

31. 6.1 Counseling the international student
neither overemphasize nor underemphasize differences orientation is a continuous process
learn the culture-specific skills of students
students may bring in a companion for counseling
peer support is extremely important
help students monitor their own culture shock
follow up students after their return home

32. 7.1. Family therapies across cultures
interlocking pathologies when problems are entangled
fusion occurs when family members can not act independently
pseudomutuality  refers to loss of boundaries

33. 7.2. Major theories of family therapy
Object Relations Theory
Bowen Theory
Structural Family Therapy
Communication Theory

34. 7.3. Increased problems for families
working mothers experience guilt
conflict in redefining responsibility
wife's career outside the home is demanding
media-driven pressure
successful families experience pain in mobility
increased conflict and legal problems in families parental roles increasingly differentiated

35. 7.4. Alternatives for multicultural families
single parent families increasing
blended families are reconstituted through divorce
extended or joint families with relatives and in-laws augmented families include nonrelatives 
nonfamily shared households
nonfamily sole person households
homeless

36. 7.5. Factors to consider in bicultural families
issues of racism and poverty
value conflicts between majority and minority
most minority families are bicultural
many minorities have experienced oppression
common bounds of language symbolize belonging class differences complicate cultural differences

37. 7.6. A racial/cultural interaction model for family therapy
within group and between group differences important dynamic changes at all levels
racial/cultural identity role of the counselor
cultural issues when minority clients are matched with majority counselors

38. 7.7 The five most frequently used models of ethnic identity
dominant majority model
transitional model moves toward dominant culture
alienation model seeks to make adjustments
multidimensional model presumes multilevel transition bicultural model presumes joint membership
the orthogonal model presumes multiple memberships

39. 7.8. Characteristics of the orthogonal model
cultures may associate without competition or isolation
minority cultures need not be eliminated or absorbed
a permanent  multicultural  society need not be a melting pot
value conflicts are not insurmountable
cultural conflict may be a positive force
people less militant when survival not the issue
interaction of majority and minority may be constructive
economic advantages of cooperation
existing models of orthogonal relationships

40. 7.9. Ho'oponopono family gatherings
pule or prayer of opening
kukulu   kumuhana  reaching out to the disruptive person
hala  is describing the problem
mahiki  is untangling
ho'omalu  is the sanction of silence
mihi  where the wrongdoer asks forgiveness
kala where the wrongdoer is brought back into the group
pani  is the religious prayer of closing

41. 8.1. Complexity in culture-centered counseling
clear and separate identification of counselor views
clear and separate identification of client views
see the other's actions from the other viewpoint
listen and store information for later
shift topics
label feelings
identify support systems
identify alternative solutions
define criteria for evaluation
generate new insights

42. 8.2. Varieties of training models
classroom model
attribution training
cultural awareness training
cognitive behavior modification
experiential training
interactional  training with resource persons

43. 8.3. Barriers to skill training
comparability and  generalizability  is difficult
clients are fitted to the technique
transfer from the laboratory to the real world
defining the limits of skills
skills training is Westernized
focuses on changing the individual rather than the context
can violate rights of privacy
hard to identify reinforcing events or rewards
too expensive

44. 8.4. Intrapsychological counseling
introjection (like imaginary playmate)
identification (imitate someone else)
incorporation (bluer distinction between self and others)
cognitive therapies focus on internal dialogue
Gestalt focuses on good-me-bad-me
Psychodrama focuses on alter ego
Conjoint family therapy focuses on pathogenic coalitions

45. 8.5. The Triad Training Model works best when:
includes positive and negative feedback
simulated interviews of real situations
safe context
train the  procounselor  and  anticounselor 
feedback to trainee is immediate and continuous
resource persons are articulate and authentic
counselor trainee can focus on the client
spontaneous and not scripted
videotaped debriefing
brief interview of 8-10 minutes

46. 8.6. The role of the anticounselor
forces counselor to see client's perspective
articulates the unspoken impolite messages
forces counselor to examine defensiveness
immediately identifies inappropriate interventions forces the counselor to focus attention

47. 8.7. Distractions that an anticounselor might do
build on positive side of problems
distract or sidetrack the counselor
obstruct communication
annoy the counselor
exaggerate differences between counselor and client
demand immediate results
communicate privately with the client
identify scapegoats
attack the counselor's credibility

48. 8.8. The role of the procounselor
resource for the counselor to consult
provider of explicit information
provides a partner for the counselor
helps counselor stay on track
provides beneficial feedback

49. 8.9. Supports the procounselor might do
restate or reframe message in a positive fashion keep the interview on track
offer approval or reinforcement
call attention to priority items
reinforce significant client statements
suggest alternative strategies to the counselor

50. 9.1. The Awareness-Knowledge-Skill framework
awareness of basic underlying assumptions
facts and information of knowledge
skills for taking appropriate action

51. 9.2. Using the intrapersonal cultural grid
identify a significant behavior or action
identify expectations behind that behavior
identify values behind each expectation
identify the culture teachers of those values

52. 9.4. The Three Dimensional Model

53. 9.5. The interpersonal cultural

54. 10.1. Three general perspectives of ethics
relativism
absolutism
contextual/universalism

55. 10.2. Philosophical premises of ethics
principle of altruism
principle of responsibility
principle of justice
principle of caring

56. 10.3. Ethical guidelines for cross-cultural research
significant involvement is correct
criteria for informed and free consent
ultimate responsibility with the researchers
what is the benefit of the research and to whom advisory principles rather than a strict code
continuous reformulation of guidelines

57. 10.4. Ethical violations are often unintentional
color blindness
overly color conscious
transfer good or bad feelings from elsewhere by client
transfer good or bad feelings from elsewhere by counselor
misinterpret cultural ambivalence
client might see counselors implicit bias
counselor might misinterpret nondisclosure

58. 10.5. Rest's six stages of moral development
obedience, "do what you are told"
instrumental egoism, "let's make a deal"
interpersonal concordance "be considerate to make friends"
law and duty, "obey the law and it will protect you"
consensus building, "the duty to follow due process"
nonarbitrary  cooperation "be rational and impartial

59. 10.6. Systematic biases in the ethical codes
individualism is favored
client must adjust to the system or majority
an elitist bias favoring the more powerful provider oversimplification of cultural issues
assumed absolute standards of right and wrong
what is good for the counselor is good for everyone

60. 11.1. Culture-centered controversies
is counseling culturally encapsulated?
are counseling measures culturally biased?
should culture be defined narrowly or broadly?
can you measure  ethno -racial cultural identity?
should similarities or differences be emphasized?
are professional ethical guidelines adequate?

61. 12.1. New research is required in the following areas
accurate epidemiological data
development of identity models
historical influences on counseling
how to control and manage prejudice
the developmental progress of White cultures
a balanced perspective

62. 12.1. New research is required in the following areas (continue)
more emphasis on within-group differences
a bicultural or  multicultural  identity development community-based samples
primary prevention programs
accurate tests and measures
a balance of  emic  and  etic 

63. 12.2. Models of culture-centered counseling
culture-specific models
culture-general models
culture-free/culture-fair models
culture deficit models
relativism and absolutism

64. 12.3. Changes for the future of society
demographic stable world population
reduce the environmental impact of technology
economic transition to the "real" costs
social transition through supranational alliances
institutional transition to focus on global problems
informational transition to educate the masses

65. 12.4. Changes for the future of counseling
increased awareness of revolutionary change
generic understanding of culture
pressure by minority groups
separate identities for each special interest group
counseling theories adapted to different cultures

66. 12.4. Changes for the future of counseling (continue)
counseling methods adapted to different cultures
counseling more globally popular
more participation by non-Western cultures
cultural encapsulation is challenged
counseling becomes  multidisciplinary 
counseling becomes more readily available
counselors forced to adapt or be left behind

67. 12.5 The culture-centered alternative for counseling
tolerance of ambiguity increases
a balance of pain and pleasure is accepted
indigenous counseling becomes more important
counseling will focus on restoring balance to clients
individuals are seen in the collective cultural context
intuition will become a source of information

68. 12.5 The culture-centered alternative for counseling (continue)
higher states of consciousness will be achieved
problems will be viewed in the cosmic context
social responsibility will become more important
both similarities and differences will become important
more emphasis on the historical context
counselors will become more aware of their own biases