1. Physical development and the implications of sensory and neurological disabilities
Dr Karl .R. Wall
DOS

2. (1) Introduction
The nature of human development
Brains, eyes and seeing-an introduction
(2) Observed development
How do ‘typical’ children develop and when?
Typical development -milestones
V I development – neurological aspects -milestones
(3) Explaining development – theories and issues

3. Four dimensions
Physical development
Social and emotional development
Thinking skills
Communication skills

4. Using web based resources
Using a web based resource e.g. 1:
We will go to the various sites in turn:
Parts of the UNSW Embryology site
Issues in relation to using images for study purposes:
Citing the web source and time of download
Copyright vs commons licence
Note any adaptation
Make a live hyper-link so source can be accessed directly
Use the actual website (not downloaded images and text) as a normal user
You may need permission to:
Use the image
Distribute the image as a paper print out
To adapt it

5. http://embryology.med.unsw.edu.au/embryo.htm Downloaded 08-09-09 2.30pm

6. Using web based resources
Using a web based resource e.g. 2:
We will go to the sites:
Parts of the WEBVISION site

7. For a detailed account of the evolution of the vertebrate eye see:

8. Brain and eyes Brain Eyes Brain stem
Photo construction- based on pictures found on the web

9. Orbits of the skull
Orbit of eye in close up
Human Skull

10. Muscles of the eye
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11. http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm

12. The Eye Aqueous humor Cornea Fovea Optic nerve Pupil Lens Iris
Vitreous humor
Retina

13. Inside the eye 1
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14. Basic equipment...2
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15. Visual processing of moving targets…
Secondary motor area
Primary motor area
Primary sensory area
Eye movement control
Visual processing of moving targets…
Motor speech area
Secondary sensory area
Visual area
Face processing area
Primary auditory area
Secondary auditory area

16. Basic equipment...3
Visual Fields, Fig 10.3, Neuroscience; Bear, Connors, Paradiso

17. Image capture Optic chiasm Optic tract Optic radiation Optic nerves
Primary visual cortex
Lateral geniculate nucleus

18. The sensory homunculus
Brains etc…
The sensory homunculus
Hip
Trunk
Arm
Hand
Foot
Face
Tongue
Larynx

19. 0 – 5 months: ‘typical’ development
From upper part of Figure 10 p64 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

20. 5 months – 1 year: ‘typical’ development
From lower part of Figure 10 p64 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

21. 12 mths – 18 mths: ‘typical’ development.
From upper part of Figure 18 p154 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

22. 18 mths – 60 mths: ‘typical’ development
From lower part of Figure 18 p154 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

23. Variation and range in milestones
From Table 4 ‘Ages when motor skills are achieved’ p95 of Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.

24. A health warning!
Apart from what a child ‘does’, we need to take account of:
The characteristics of a particular child
Their immediate environment
Their family context and its social nature
Their cultural context: social implications
How the same child varies by setting

25. …and another health warning!
More broadly we need to be mindful of:
How the developmental course varies for different individuals in:
similar settings
different settings
with the same people
with different people

26. OK!... Another warning! We always need to ask:
‘How our developmental expectations affect our interpretation of what we observe?’
‘How the expectations of others may affect their interpretation of what they observe?’

27. Kathleen Berger (2000)
The typical (usual) patterns of growth and change are ones everyone follows to some degree but no one follows exactly

28. Typical and atypical development
Five broad groups of contexts linking typical and atypical children:
1 Delayed development
2 Atypical development
3 Compensatory development
4 Absence of development
5 Typical behaviour displayed by atypical children

29. Atypical development 1 1 Delayed development
Development is slower than typically developing children. Similar processes are shared, involving the same stages. Atypical children may not develop to the same extent
Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

30. Atypical development 2 2 Atypical development
The processes of development differ to those found in typical children - as a result behaviours and developments not seen in typical children may be apparent
Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

31. Compensatory development
Atypical development 3
Compensatory development
Here the same developmental end point is reached but the route taken by atypical children is different to that taken by typically developing children
Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

32. 4 Absence of development
Atypical development 4
4 Absence of development
Children fail to develop a particular aspect of development
Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

33. 5 Typical behaviour displayed by atypical children
Atypical development 5
5 Typical behaviour displayed by atypical children
Here atypical children display typical behaviours and development: the atypical child may show typical development, developing within the range of variation noted for typical development.
Based on Herbert, M. (2003) ‘Typical and Atypical Development’ Oxford: BPS Blackwell. p.xiii

34. Issues linked to ‘milestones’ 1
When milestones occur - taking account of range and underlying variation
Expectations
Impact of cultural variation

35. Issues linked to ‘milestones’ 2
Impact of cultural variation
Child-rearing practices
The equivalence of expectations from different professional perspectives
Different periods, different judgements: e.g. height and physical maturity

36. Specific issues: VI and milestones 1
Parent –child interaction
Importance of visual feedback
Motor activity and movement
Focus on child touch and hand movements
Focus on listening by child
Compensatory communication routes

37. VI– developmental focus areas
Movement perception
Perceptual-motor skills
Gross motor skills
Fine motor skills
Useable vision
Size constancy
Shape constancy
Face recognition
Depth perception

38. Child development theories 1
Historically:
Childhood: the early part of being an adult - not a special period
Children as little adults – no special care or attention required; no differentiation between ‘child’ development and ‘adult’ development

39. Child development theories 2
Arnold Gesell ( ): universal patterns of physical maturation, genetically driven and determined > ‘milestones of development’
Sigmund Freud ( ): early childhood experience informs subsequent development; focus on impact of psychosexual influences > type of stage theory

40. Child development theories 3
Erik Erikson ( ): extends Freud’s perspectives:
Brings in environmental factors and more stages issue of overcoming stage related ‘crisis’ events.
B.F. Skinner ( ): Child behaviour shaped by how experience is reinforced:
Role of reward and punishment > experience conditions behaviour

41. Child development theories 4
Alfred Bandura (1925 -present): Learning informed by imitation and social observation
Role of motivation and inner psychological processes
modelling, role models, ‘social’ learning: ‘Social Learning Theory’

42. Child development theories 5
Lev Vygotsky ( ): Learning interactions as basis of development:
Role of social context, language, communication and the mediating influence of others inform a ‘social constructivist’ development
Historical, cultural and social factors inform cognition and development - ‘language’ is the principal societal tool

43. Child development theories 6
Jean Piaget ( ): development seen as:
Four, genetically driven, universal and sequential stages of symbol based ‘cognitive’ development.
These reflect children's individual construction of their own thinking systems, supported by interaction with adults

44. Child development theories 7
John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Integrated Attachment Theory):
focus on how parent – child relationships are established
the role of early relational experiences and their impact on how later relationships are formed and maintained
‘Life Course’ perspectives: re-integration of child and adult development as aspects of a single developmental continuum

45. Recommended sources
Sylva, K. and Lunt, I. (1982) Child development-a first course. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Herbert, M. (2003) Typical and Atypical Development. Oxford: BPS Blackwell.
Lewis. V. (2003) Development and Disability. 2nd Edition. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Sheridan, M. D. (2005) From Birth to Five years [Updated and revised by Frost, M. and Sharma, A.). London: Routledge.
Sheridan, M. D. (2006) Play in Early Childhood – From birth to six years. [Updated and revised by Harding, J. and Meldon-Smith, L.). London: Routledge.

46. Other sources 1
Butterworth, G. & Harris, M. (1994). Principles of Developmental Psychology. Hove: Psychology Press. Chap. 9: Cognitive development in early childhood; Chap. 10: Cognitive development in middle childhood.
Child, D. (1997). Psychology and the Teacher. London: Cassell. Chap. 7: Concept formation and cognitive development.
Donaldson, M. (1978) Children’s Minds. London: Fontana. (a critique of aspects of Piaget’s stage theory)

47. Other sources 2
Eysenck. M.W. (2000). Psychology: A Student’s Handbook. Hove, E. Sussex: Psychology Press. Chap. 16: Cognitive development.
Siegler, R.S. & Wagner Alibali, M. (2005). Children’s Thinking. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chap. 2: Piaget’s theory of development.
Sutherland, P. (1992). Cognitive Development Today: Piaget and his Critics. London: Paul Chapman.
Tharp, R. & Gallimore, R. (1991). A theory of assisted performance, in P. Light, S. Sheldon, M. Woodhead (eds). Learning to Think. London: Routledge.

48. Other sources 3
Miller, P. H. (2002) Theories of Developmental Psychology (4th edn). New York: Worth.
Kugelmass, J. W. (2007) Constructivist views of learning: implications for inclusive education, in Lani Florian (ed). The SAGE Handbook of Special Education. London: SAGE
De Valenzuela. J. S. (2007) Sociocultural views of learning in Lani Florian (ed). The SAGE Handbook of Special Education. London: SAGE

49. Copyright notice and image sources
The copyright of referenced diagrams, texts and sources is acknowledged.
All photographic images used in this presentation were in the public domain ( the copyright of individual owners is acknowledged where this was not apparent in the source) or taken from copyright free clip art / photo sources (including those available through© Microsoft Corporation). Disclaimer: The interpretation of the meaning of the images and the person (s) represented in them as well as the interpretation of any diagrams or referenced sources is that of the presenter alone.

50. Short-Sightedness
Also known as Near-sight or Myopia, short-sighted individuals have trouble seeing things in the distance whilst anything close-up is clearer. This occurs because light from the objects being viewed focuses in front of the retina and not on it. It is believed that this mostly happens as a result of the eyeball being slightly too long. The scientific term for this is Axial Myopia
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51. Long-Sightedness
Also known as Far-sight or Hyperopia, long-sighted individuals have difficulty with anything close-up whilst their general distance vision is not as bad. Light from objects viewed will theoretically focus behind the retina and not on it. However because the eye is able to naturally fatten the lens and cause light to bend more, this error in focus is overcome, which explains why distance vision is generally pretty good.
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52. Q: What can we do if particular parts of the eye are affected?
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53. http://webvision.med.utah.edu/anatomy.html downloaded 08-09-09 at 4.15pm