1. Prof. Sonali S. Gosavi Assistant professor, S.S.G.M. college Kopargaon
RESEARCH METHEDOLOGY
Prof. Sonali S. Gosavi
Assistant professor, S.S.G.M. college Kopargaon
Prof. Gosavi S.S

2. Research Definition
A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
Research is an art of scientific investigation.
Systematic effort to gain new knowledge.
A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

3. According to clifford woody
Research comprises defining & redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or making deductions, and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
Hypothesis- A supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

4. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The major aim of any type of research is to find out the reality and facts which is unknown and which has not been exposed. Although each research activity has its own particular reason, the objectives of research can be grouped into the following categories :
1. To achieve skillfulness with a trend or to get novel opinions
into it (research with this objective can be termed as exploratory or formulative);
2. To find out the characteristics of a particular character, condition or a grouping (research with this objective can be termed as descriptive research);
3. To establish the relationship with which something occur or with which it is related with something else (research with this objective are known as diagnostic research);
4. To test a hypothesis of a reasonable liaison between different variables (this type of research can be grouped into hypothesis-testing research ).
Prof. Gosavi S.S

5. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

6. TYPES OF RESEARCH The basic types of research are as follows:
Descriptive vs. Analytical
Applied vs. Fundamental
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Conceptual vs. Empirical
Some Other Types of Research
Prof. Gosavi S.S

7. Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

8. Applied vs. Fundamental:
Applied research refers to finding a solution for specific, practical problem facing by an individual, society or an industrial or business organization, for example how to abolish hate crime, what are the ways to market a product, what is causing increased poverty etc. whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with overview and with the formulation of a theory. This is pure and basic type of research, for example an investigation looking for whether stress levels influence how often students engage in academic cheating or how caffeine consumption impacts the brain. Thus, the main aim of applied research is to find out a solution for some critical practical problem, whereas basic research is handling towards finding information that has a wide sense of applications to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

9. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
In natural sciences and social sciences, quantitative research is based on the aspect of quantity or extent. It is related to object that can be expressed in terms of quantity or something that can be counted. Such type of research involve systematic experimental analysis of observable phenomenon via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques in numerical form such as statistics, percentages, etc. whereas Qualitative research, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., relating to quality or variety. Such type of research is typically descriptive and harder to analyze than quantitative data. Qualitative research involves looking in-depth at non-numerical data. It is more naturalistic or anthropological.(study of mankind)
Prof. Gosavi S.S

10. Conceptual vs. Empirical:
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It focuses on the concept and theory that explain the concerned theory being studied. It is generally used by logicians, philosophers and theorist to develop new concepts or to again understand the existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation lone. It is a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. We can also refer it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get the facts and data firstly, their source, and then actively engaged to doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

11. Some Other Types of Research
Other types of research may be of different types rather than above stated types like form the point of view of time, one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is restricted to a single time-period, while in the latter case the research is carried on over several timeperiods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or model research, which will depend upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research may be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows case- study methods or exhaustively approaches to reach the basic reasons behind the problems.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

12. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized
The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the creation of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research are those with significant structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. The term historical research is refers to that which make use of historical resource lik documents, papers, leaflets remains, etc. to study events or thoughts of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any point of time.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

13. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher having freethinking to choose a problem, redesign the queries as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wants. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to get on research according to his own preference.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

14. Research Methods Versus Methodology
Research methods include all the techniques and methods which have been taken for conducting research where as research methodology is the approach in which research troubles are solved thoroughly. It is a science of studying how research is conducted systematically. In this field the researcher explains himself with the different steps generally taken to study a research problem. Hence, the scientific approach which is adopted for conducting a research is called methodology.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

15. Literature- Review or Review of Literature
Literature reviews play an important role as a foundation for all types of research. Being able to establish what is known about a subject area, and by association what is not yet known, is an important skill for students and researchers. In academic circles this is referred to as reviewing literature, and allows you to understand the current state in a subject area, to relate this to the ongoing research, and to identify gaps in this knowledge. A literature review may resolve a debate, establish the need for additional research, and define a topic of inquiry.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

16. In summary, a literature review has the following functions:
It provides a theoretical background to your study.
It helps you establish the links between what you are proposing to examine and what has already been studied.
It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to the existing body of knowledge in your profession.
It helps you to integrate your research findings into the existing body of knowledge.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

17. 1. bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
In relation to your own study, the literature review can help in four ways. It can:
1. bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
2. improve your research methodology;
3. broaden your knowledge base in your research area; and
4. contextualize your findings.(study in context)
Prof. Gosavi S.S

18. Extensive literature survey
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

19. Library Research
Library research involves the step-by-step process used to gather information in order to write a paper, create a presentation, or complete a project. As you progress from one step to the next, it is commonly necessary to back up, revise, add additional material or even change your topic completely. This will depend on what you discover during your research. There are many reasons for adjusting your plan. For example, you may find that your topic is too broad and needs to be narrowed, sufficient information resources may not be available, what you learn may not support your thesis, or the size of the project does not fit the requirements.
The research process itself involves identifying and locating relevant information, analyzing what you found, and then developing and expressing your ideas. These are the same skills you will need on the job when you write a report or proposal.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

20. Secondary sources are studies by other researchers
Secondary sources are studies by other researchers. They describe, analyze, and/or evaluate information found in primary sources. By repackaging information, secondary sources make information more accessible. A few examples of secondary sources are books, journal and magazine articles, encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks, periodical indexes, and reviews, etc.
Primary sources are original works. These sources represent original thinking, report on discoveries, or share new information. Usually these represent the first formal appearance of original research. Primary sources include statistical data, manuscripts, surveys, speeches, biographies/autobiographies, diaries, oral histories, interviews, works or art and literature, research reports, government documents, computer programs, original documents(birth certificates, trial transcripts...) etc.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

21. Field research
Field research is defined as a qualitative method of data collection that aims to observe, interact and understand people while they are in a natural environment. For example, nature conservationists observe behavior of animals in their natural surroundings and the way they react to certain scenarios. In the same way, social scientists conducting field research may conduct interviews or observe people from a distance to understand how they behave in a social environment and how they react to situations around them.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

22. Field research encompasses a diverse range of social research methods including direct observation, limited participation, analysis of documents and other information, informal interviews, surveys etc. Although field research is generally characterized as qualitative research, it often involves multiple aspects of quantitative research in it. Field research typically begins in a specific setting although the end objective of the study is to observe and analyze the specific behavior of a subject in that setting. The cause and effect of a certain behavior, though, is tough to analyze due to presence of multiple variables in a natural environment. Most of the data collection is based not entirely on cause and effect but mostly on correlation. While field research looks for correlation, the small sample size makes it difficult to establish a causal relationship between two or more variables.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

23. Methods of Field Research
Direct Observation
In this method, the data is collected via an observational method or subjects in a natural environment.
Participant Observation
In this method of field research, the researcher is deeply involved in the research process, not just purely as an observer, but also as a participant.
Ethnography
Ethnography is an expanded observation of social research and social perspective and the cultural values of an  entire social setting.
Qualitative Interviews
Qualitative interviews are close-ended questions that are asked directly to the research subjects.
Case Study
A case study research is an in-depth analysis of a person, situation or event. 
Prof. Gosavi S.S

24. Laboratory Research
A laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific or technological research, experiments, and measurement may be performed.
controlled laboratory research is a research conducted in a setting specifically designed for research. Laboratory research is often described as tightly controlled investigation in which the researcher manipulates the particular factor under study to determine if such manipulation generates a change in the subjects. The subjects in laboratory research can be selected and placed in conditions more systematically and they usually know that they are participating in a research study.
laboratory research studies are more likely to represent a true experimental design. Laboratory studies have the advantage of greater control of irrelevant variables that might otherwise influence the results and thus of clearer clues of the behavior being observed.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

25. Unit II: Data Collection and Documentation of Observations
Prof. Gosavi S.S

26. Maintaining laboratory record:
Laboratory notebooks are the means for keeping a permanent record of the details of an individual’s day- to-day research and development work in the laboratory. They provide a basic reference which the individual and others can refer to a later to a date; legal evidence with respect to the materials recorded, such as conception of an invention and the date thereof or date of reduction to provisions in many grant and contractual arrangements.
During the last half of the 20th century, social and technological changes in academic research groups have challenged traditional research record-keeping practices, making them either insufficient or obsolete. New practices have developed but standards (best practices) are still evolving which contains the use of various computer software’s.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

27. Instructions for Recording data in the Laboratory Notebook
All entries should be made in a legible and orderly manner using permanent ink, preferably black.
Make entries clear and complete so that someone else could repeat the experiment if necessary.
Avoid erasures. If an error is made, cross it out and make the correction immediately thereafter With cancelation note.
State the object and results of each experiment clearly and concisely.
Describe and give quantities of all materials used. Explain all code numbers and abbreviations.
An entry dealing with a conception (invention, idea) should describe the thing conceived
Negative or disparaging entries should be avoided.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

28. Each day’s work should, whenever possible, be started on a separate page with lines drawn diagonally across the unused portion of the previous page. (This gives legal evidence that additions were not made at a later date.)
Each page must be signed and dated by the individual who makes the entry and does the work.
Where two or more individuals make a conception, it need only be entered in the notebook of one, but must be signed and dated by all the conceivers.
For copying purposes, graphs, charts, analytical data, etc. should be attached to the notebook pages with a permanent adhesive and should, when unfolded, be kept within the confines of the opened notebook.
Research notebook should be keep in the laboratory or office in a file cabinet and protected from damage, they are legal evidence. Report the loss of theft of a research notebook.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

29. Tabulation and generation of graphs
It is very hard to study or interpret large data without grouping it, even if it is arranged sequentiqlly. For this, the data are usually organized into groups called classes and presented in a table which gives the frequency in each group. Such a frequency table gives a better overall view of the distribution of data and enables a person to rapidly comprehend important characteristics of the data.
For example, a test of 50 marks is administered on a class of 40 students and the marks obtained by these students are as listed below in Table 1
Prof. Gosavi S.S

30. Graphical Representation of Data:
The data which has been shown in the tabular form may be displayed in pictorial form by using a graph. A well-constructed graphical presentation is the easiest way to depict a given set of data.
Types of graphical representation of data Here only a few of the standard graphic forms of representing the data are being discussed as listed below:
a Histogram
a Bar Diagram or Bar Graph
a Pie Chart
a Frequency Polygon
a Cumulative Frequency Curve
Prof. Gosavi S.S

31. Prof. Gosavi S.S

32. Imaging of tissues:
Morphological investigations may fulfill several roles. An important one is the structural analysis of cells and tissues. The description of the various types of cells and tissues, the analysis of their architecture and the delineation of criteria allowing for the correct identification of the various cell lineages have provided the basis necessary for the historical development of histology, embryology, and pathology.
Today, structural criteria remain essential for the correct identification of cells and tissues in the normal state, for the monitoring of their changes during embryogenesis and organogenesis, and for the evaluation of their changes in disease.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

33. Historically, the structural analysis of cells and tissues has been based on descriptive morphological techniques, including conventional histology, histochemistry, and electron microscopy. Today, it may also rely on more recently developed techniques, such as immunohistochemistry, which permits the use of cell specific proteins as markers for the identification of cell lineages.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

34. A second aim of morphological imaging is to contribute to the functional analysis of cells and tissues. Morphological techniques provide essential information's about the relations between structure and function in cells and tissues and, in this way, have largely contributed to the development of cell biology. In collaboration with other techniques, morphological techniques may also contribute to the understanding of metabolic and physiological processes in health and disease. The need for an accurate functional analysis of cells and tissues has had important consequences on the practice of morphological sciences: it prompted the development of new techniques allowing for in situ analysis of gene expression, such as immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization, as well as the development of new microscopical devices, such as confocal microscopy.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

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37. The Art Of Field Photography
Born in 1799 in Kent, ​Atkins was an English botanist who developed cameraless photography as a medium for recording images of plants.  She knew both the pioneer photographer William Henry Fox Talbot, and Sir John Herschel who invented the cyanotype printing method. The very striking cyan blue colour is caused by a mix of ammonium ion citrate and potassium ferricyanide - in a process developed by the astronomer and scientist Sir John Herschel. The images produced are now commonly known as "blueprints".
Prof. Gosavi S.S

38. Photographs have been little more than an ancillary part of traditional herbarium collections. When photographs of plants first became common in the late 19th century, botanists saw them as a form of botanical illustration rather than as a sort of herbarium specimen and so stored them in botanical libraries rather than as part of the formal herbaria.
The advent of digital photography in the 1990s did not alter the principal role of photographs as a form of illustration rather than of documentation. Examples of floras that include online digital images include Kew and Biodiversity of India websites.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

39. Photography is an real art in the field of Research.
To take a good field photograph a good camera is needed.
All basic and advanced functions of camera should be known to researcher i.e. Exposer, ISO, Flash, Sharpening.
Camera lens plays an important role in photograph there are various range of lens used in photography, for detail plant photo macro lens should be used.
Photos should be clear and bright that can easily observe a detail characteristics of plant later.
Flash should be used in proper way.
Camera angle should cover all the main character of plant or inflorescence.
When we plan a field photography or collection the camera memory should have enough space.
Camera battery should be fully charged.
All photographs should checked before leaving the field.
Prof. Gosavi S.S

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