1. INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

2. Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Civil Engineering is the oldest branch of engineering. The application of knowledge of science to the benefit of mankind is engineering. An engineer develops new materials, new tools or new techniques to make life of all easier. Branches of Civil Engineering: The main branches of Civil Engineering are:- Surveying Structural engineering Geotechnical engineering Transportation engineering Materials technology Construction technology Hydraulics, water resources and irrigation engineering Environmental engineering

3. Infrastructure: It may be defined as basic essential needs required for the smooth and effective functioning of organization, Institute, State or Country Types of Infrastructure  Transportation infrastructure. This type infrastructure includes, 1.Road and highway networks including structures like bridges, culverts, retaining walls etc. 2.Railways including structures, terminals, level crossings etc. 3.Airports including air navigational system. 4.Cannas and navigable water ways. 5.Mass transportation system. 6.Bicycle plants and pedestrian walks.  Energy infrastructure. 1.Planning, designing and maintaining of hydro-electric power plants, thermal power plants, atomic energy plants, electric grid substations and local distribution. 2.Natural gas and petroleum storage and distribution.  Financial infrastructure. 1.Banking system construction and maintenance. 2.Exchanges, financial regulations etc.

4.  Water management infrastructure. 1.Drinking water supply lines and maintenance. 2.Sewage collection and safe disposal. 3.Multi-purpose irrigation systems. 4.Major flood control Systems.  Communication infrastructure. 1.Communication software 2.Postal services. 3.Mobile phone network. 4.Social network services. 5.Satellites and underground cables.  Waste management facilities. 1.Solid waste land fills 2.Incinerators to burn waste. 3.Hazardous waste disposal facilities

5. Role of Civil Engineer (or Civil Engineering) in Infrastructural Development: 1. Infrastructure facilities involve all the civil engineering constructions, electricity, and telephone and internet facility, educational and healthcare facilities. 2. Civil engineers involve in good town planning and developing sites. 3. Civil engineers have to construct and maintain road and rail networks. 4. They involve in the construction, development and maintenance of docks, harbors and airports. 5. Better irrigation facilities are a key factor for the agricultural products of a country. 6. Construction of dams, network of canals is the functions of civil engineers in the field. 7. They assure water supply to towns, cities and rural areas. 8. Civil engineers design a good drainage and waste disposal system. 9. They have to provide solution to environmental pollution and hazards. 10. Careful planning and proper utilization of funds invested on infrastructural developments to realize maximum benefit is the key role of Civil Engineer.

6. Impact of Infrastructural facilities on socio- economic development of a Country: 1. The infrastructure development generates scope for lots of industries. 2. Imports and exports become easy as a result of which whole world become a village. 3. Improved education and healthcare give rise to skilled and healthy work force. 4. Increase in food production & protection from famine. 5. Addition to the wealth & quality of life of the people is improved. 6. In the case of natural calamities assistance can be extended easily and affected people are saved. 7. Defense system can be improved and peace exists in the country. 8. Antisocial activities come under control. 9. Improved economical power of the country brings a respectable status in the world. 10. Overall development of the country.

7. Chapter 2 ROADS Components of roads: i)Pavement (or carriage way)ii) Kerbs iii)Shouldersiv) Foot pathsv) Right of Way i) Pavement (or Carriage Way): This is the width of road which is designed to handle volume of expected traffic. For pavements having two or more lanes, the width of 3.5m per lane is considered sufficient. The cross section of carriageway consists of the following components. a)Subsoilb) Subgradec) Base d) Surface

8. Subsoil: It is the natural or prepared soil on which the road has to be formed. It is prepared by properly compacting the natural soil. Subgrade: It gives support to the road structure. It should remain stable and dry throughout. The subgrade soil consists mainly of disintegrated rocks like gravel, sand, silt and clay. Base and Subbase: Base course is provided with stone aggregates for a thickness of about 250mm. Subbase distributes the load to the subgrade. It should have good drainage property. It is made with granular soil, bricks or boulders. Surfacing: It is the topmost layer of carriage way which takes load from traffic directly. It has to provide a smooth, non-slippery and stable surface for the vehicles. It should be impervious and should protect base and subgrade from rain water. It may be provided with bituminous material or with cement concrete.

9. ii) Kerb: Kerb indicates the boundaries between the pavement and shoulder.

10. There are 3 types of kerbs. Low or mountable type kerb Semi barrier type kerb Barrier type kerb Low or mountable type kerb: Height of this kerb is 10cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb allows the driver to enter the shoulder area with little difficulty. Semi barrier type kerb: Height of this kerb is 15cm above the pavement edge. This kerb prevents encroachment of vehicles but during emergency it is possible to drive over this kerb. Barrier type kerb: Height of this kerb is 20cm above the pavement edge generally provided in built up areas.

11. Super Elevation: The transverse inclination to the pavement surface is known as super elevation or cant or banking. The super elevation “e” expressed as the ratio of the height of outer edge with respect to the horizontal width. iii) Shoulders: The width of carriage way is extended on both sides of carriage way by a minimum of 2m to 5m. It acts as service lane for the broken down vehicle and in case of blocking of carriage way it serves as emergency lane. The requirements of shoulder are a) They should have sufficient load bearing capacity so as to support loaded trucks. b) Surface of shoulder should be rough compared to pavement so that drivers are discouraged to use it as regular lane. c) Its colour should be different from that of pavement surface so that they are distinct in vision. iv) Footpaths: They are provided for pedestrians to separate them from vehicular traffics in case of urban roads. They are usually required in city roads. The width of footpath is kept 1.3m or more, depending upon volume of pedestrian traffic. To encourage pedestrian to use footpath, surface should be smooth and comfortable. v) Right of way: It is the land secured and reserved for development of a road and all structures pertaining to the road.

12. Cross Slope or Camber: It is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction to drain off the rain water from the road surface. Quick disposal of water from the road surface is important for the following reasons: i)To prevent the entry of water in to the subgrade. If water enters the subgrade, the strength will be adversely affected. ii) Continuous contact of bitumen with water causes stripping of bitumen from the aggregate results into deterioration of the pavement layer. iii) To allow the pavement to get dry soon after the rain. iv) To improve the skid resistance. Camber is provided on roads by raising center of the carriage way with respect to the edges forming crown in the centre line. The shape of the camber i) Parabolic camber ii) Straight line camber Parabolic camber is provided for fast moving vehicles. Straight line camber may be provided in flat cross slopes.

13. Classification of Roads: i) Functional classification of roads (According to Nagpur plan) a) National Highways (NH): National highways are the main highways running through the length and breadth of the country, connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large states and large industrial and tourist centers, including roads required for strategic movements of troops. b) State Highways (SH): State highways are the arterial roads of a state, connecting with the national highways, capitals of adjacent states, district headquarters and important cities within the state. A state highway serves as a connecting link for traffic to and from district roads. c) Major District Roads (MDR): Major district roads are the important roads within a district, serving areas of production and market and connecting them with each other or with main highways of a district. d) Other district roads (ODR): Other district roads are the roads serving the rural areas of production and providing them with an outlet to market centers, taluk headquarters. e) Village roads (VR): They pass through rural areas connecting the villages or groups of villages to one another to the nearest road of higher category. f) Express ways: Express ways are separate class of highway with superior facilities and design standards. No cross traffic is permitted on express ways. They are provided with divided carriage ways, controlled grade separators at cross roads and fencing. These highways permit only fast moving vehicles. Expressways may be owned by state or central governments. Bangalore-Mysore infrastructure corridor (BMIC) expressway, which is under construction, is owned by State government.

14. ii) Classification based on use during different seasons of the year: 1.All weather roads: which are negotiable during all weathers. 2.Fair weather roads: in which the traffic may be interrupted during monsoon seasons. iii) Classification based on the road pavement: a) Paved roads b) Unpaved roads In paved roads, hard pavement coarse is provided. Earthen roads are called unpaved roads. Bypass road is constructed around the city to ease the traffic congestion in the city. Ring road is constructed alround the city sufficiently away from the city to reduce the traffic congestion in heart of city.

15. Chapter 3 BRIDGES Bridge is a structure constructed across an obstacle such as a river, stream, deep valley or a utility service like highway or railway to cross the obstacle. Bridges are classified into various types depending upon the following factors: a) Purpose: Based on purpose of construction the bridges can be classified as road bridges, railway bridges, foot bridges, aqueduct (for carrying canal water across valley), viaduct (for taking roads across dry valleys) etc. b) Alignment: If the bridge is at right angles to the obstacle it is termed as square bridge. If it is at some other angle the bridge is termed as skew bridge.

16. c) Life: Under this bridges are classified into permanent bridges and temporary bridges. Temporary bridges are built during military operations or during project execution. d) Span or Length: Under this category the bridges are classified as i) Culverts (span less than 8m) ii) Minor bridges (span between 8m to 30m) iii) Major bridges (span 30 to 120m) iv) Long span bridges (span more than 120m) e) Position of high flood level: Under this category bridges are classified as submersible bridges and non-submersible bridges. In submersible bridges water is permitted to flow above bridge during heavy rains. f) Material used for construction: The bridges are timber bridges, masonry bridges, steel bridges, RCC bridges, PSC bridges and composite bridges. Masonry bridges are usually arch bridges. g) Type of connection: The steel bridges are classified under this category as pin connected riveted and welded bridges.

17. h) Fixed or movable: Fixed bridges are normally built. Movable bridges are built across navigable channels so as to avoid obstacles to navigation. Movable bridges may be further classified as, a)Swing bridge b)Bascule bridge c)Lift bridge. In case of Bascule bridge, the entire superstructure is rotated in vertical plane 70 to 80 0.

18. i) Location of Bridge Floor: Under this bridge can be classified as Deck, Semi-through or through type depending upon whether the bridge floor is on top, intermediate or at bottom level of super structure.

19. j) Super Structure : Based on superstructure the bridges may be classified as portal frame bridges, truss bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges and suspension bridges. Suspension bridges suspended on cables at the ends.

20. Beam Bridge : A beam bridge is basically a rigid horizontal structure that rest on two supports, one located at each end of the bridge as shown in Figure. A simple beam bridge is flat across and supported by two ends. Beam Bridge

21. Arch Bridge An arch bridge is composed of a curved structure with abutments on each end. Arch Bridge

22. Suspension Bridge The suspension bridge literally suspends the roadbed from huge cables, which extends from one end of the bridge to the other. The cables are attached to two tall towers and are secured at each end by anchorages. Suspension Bridge

23. Cable stayed bridges - Cables in the vertical or near vertical planes support the main longitudinal girders. These cables are hung from one or more tall towers, and are usually anchored at the bottom to the girders. Cable stayed bridges are economical when the span is about 150 m to 700 m. Layout of cable stayed bridges are shown in Figure. Cable stayed bridges

24. Girder bridges: Girder bridges may be either solid web girders or truss girders or box girders. Plate girder bridges are adopted for simply supported spans less than 50 m and box girders for continuous spans up to 250 m. Cross sections of a typical plate girder and box girder bridges are shown in Figure. Truss bridges are suitable for the span range of 30 m to 375 m. Cantilever bridges have been built with success with main spans of 300 m to 550 m. Plate girder bridge section

25. Box girder bridge section Culvert: When a small stream crosses a road with linear water way less than about 8mts, the cross drainage structure so provided is called culvert. Foot Bridge: It is a bridge exclusively used for carrying pedestrians, cycles and animals. Floating bridges: Floating bridges are also known as pontoon bridges, are temporary structures constructed over rivers in times of emergency during wars. The parts of the bridge are prefabricated and also they can be dismantled in very short time.

26. DAMS: Dam is a hydraulic structure built across the river to store water so as to create reservoir. The reservoir side is called upstream side. Other side is known as down stream side. Classification of dams: Dams are classified on the following basis. Materials of constructioniii) Flow conditions Structural behavioriv) Function. 1.According to the materials used in the construction, dams are classified into 1.Rigid dams:- They are constructed using rigid materials eg: Timber dams, Steel dams, Arch dams, Solid gravity dams

27. 1.Non rigid dams:- They are constructed using non-rigid materials. Eg: Earth dams, Rock fill dams, Combined rock and earth fill dams.

28. 1.According to flow conditions, dams are classified into 1.Over flow dam:- surplus water flows over the body of the dam. Eg: Spillways 2.Non-overflow dam:- water is not allowed to flow over the dam.

29. 1.Classification based on structural behavior:- Dams are classified into a) Gravity Dams : Gravity dams resists external forces (water pressure, silt pressure, wave pressure etc) by the self weight of the dam. They are built with masonry or concrete. They are massive in construction.

30. b) Arch dams : An arch dam is curved in plan. It is built with masonry or concrete. The hydraulic pressure from the reservoir is resisted by the arch action.

31. Buttress dam: In buttress dams usually reinforced concrete arch slab retains the water. These arches are supported by concrete or masonry buttresses

32. 1.Classification according to the functions performed a) Diversion dams: Raises water level to facilitate diversion of water in to channels. b) Detention dam: These are the dams primarily constructed to temporarily detain flood waters of a river and gradually release the stored water at controlled rate. c) Storage dam: These are dams primarily built to store the water to create reservoir. If the reservoir is small, it is called tank. The stored water is used throughout the year for water supply and / or for irrigation. Eg. KRS dam at Mysore.

33. Various terms in connection with water storage in a dam: Maximum Water Level (MWL): The maximum level to which the water raises during the worst flood is known as the Maximum Water Level. Full Tank Level (FTL): It is level of water in reservoir under normal operating conditions. Sill level: It is the lowest water level up to which the water in the reservoir can be drawn out. Useful Storage: Volume of water stored in the reservoir between the FTL & sill level. Dead Storage: Volume of water stored in the reservoir below the sill level. Free Board: The height between MWL and top of the dam is the free board. Free board must be provided to avoid the possibility of water being spilled over top of the dam due to wave action.