1. Organic Chemistry
Organic Chemistry: Study of the compounds of Carbon 7 million examples
Inorganic Chemistry: Study of molecules without Carbon ( 1.5 million examples)

2. Hydrocarbons
Organic molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen with covalent bonds.
Major components of fossil fuels such as coal, oil or gas. They consists of partially decomposed remains of organisms that lived millions of years ago.
Methane is a fossil fuel, it is easily made in anaerobic conditions with manure and bacteria (also in swamps or dumps)

3. Hydrocarbons
CH4
Methane

4. Methane Production Methane can be produced in: Coalmines Slurry pits
Waste dumps
Digestive tracts of animals

5. Hazards of Methane Production
Fires and explosions
Death by suffocation
Contributes to the greenhouse effect

6. Empirical Formula = formula represents the lowest ratios of the element in a compound
Molecular Formula = a molecular formula describes the numbers of different kinds of atoms in a molecule
Structural Formula = a structural formula represents a two-dimensional model of how the atoms are bonded to each other. Each dash represents a bonding pair of electrons.
Condensed Structural Formula = structural formula written not drawn

7. **Ignore that it’s Spanish (I think)

8. Draw a carbon atom How many monovalent atoms can bond to carbon?
What shape and bond angle will carbon molecule have? 109.5
What type of bond? Covalent or ionic

10. Definition
Saturated =  chemical compound that has a chain of carbon atoms linked together by single bonds and has atoms filling all of the other bonding orbitals of the carbon atoms.
(SINGLE BONDS ONLY- BONDING ORBITALS FULL)
 Unsaturated compound is a chemical compound that contains carbon-carbon double bonds or triple bonds, such as those found in alkenes or alkynes, respectively.
(CONTAINS DOUBLE/ TRIPLE BOND)

11. Tetrahedral compounds are saturated
Alkanes
Chloroalkanes [Haloalkanes]
Alcohols
Where-ever there is a double or triple bond they become planar

12. Carbon skeletons can vary in length.

14. Organic compounds
An aromatic compound is a compound that contain a benzene ring.
Aliphatic compound is an organic compound that consists of open chains of carbon atoms and closed chains compounds (ring) that resemble them in chemical properties eg. Cyclohexane

15. Cycloalkanes are alkanes (only carbon to carbon single bonds) which form a ring structure.eg cyclohexane
The "straight" chain has carbon atoms that are able to rotate freely around their single bonds, sometimes linking up in a closed ring.
Ring compounds of the first four cycloalkanes =

17. Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Contain benzene rings
Delocalised electrons
Benzene: C6H6
unreactive (less than expected),
alternating double and single bonds with bond length between single and double bond length
Stable
insoluble in water
Toxic
Carcinogenic
good organic solvent
planar

18. Range and scope of aromatic chemistry
Methyl benzene is used as a industrial solvent
Pharmaceutical compounds, e.g. Morphine
Herbicides, e.g. Diuron
Detergents, e.g. Sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate
Dyes, e.g. Martius Yellow
The acid-base indicators phenolphthalein and methyl orange are also aromatic compounds:Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange
Benzene is carcinogenic

19. Homologous series Alkanes occur in what is called a homologous series.
A series of compound of uniform chemical type
Showing gradations in physical properties
Having a general formula for its members
Each member having a similar method of preparation
Each successive compound differs from the one before it only by a CH2

20. Homologous series

21. Alkanes Only have single bonds between carbons (saturated)
Have maximum amount of Hydrogens
End with –ane
CnH2n+2
Fairly unreactive but do burn in oxygen, used as fuel due to high heat of combustion, cheap and clean products
Tetrahedral shape (not planar) 109.5o angles
Non-polar so immiscible in water
Ethane
Butane
C1-C4 (gas)
C5-C12 (liquids)
C13-C31 (waxy solids)
C32+ (solids).

22. C1to C4
Gases
C5 to C16
Liquids
C17 + Waxy Solids

23. Natural gas is pure methane
Bottles gas is propane and butane

24. General formula CnH2n+2 Identify the number of H’s in each alkane
C5Hx
C10Hx
C16Hx
C55Hx
C3Hx
C28Hx
C21Hx
C4Hx
C15Hx
What state?

25. Need to know how to draw structural formula
Must know how to draw from nameor vice versa
CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH3

27. (commonly called isobutane)
Branching
Skeletons may be branched or unbranched.
Butane
C4H10
2-methylpropane
(commonly called isobutane)

28. Structural Isomers
Are compounds with same molecular formula but different structural formulas
The number of isomers increases tremendously as carbon skeletons increase in size.
Only need to know to C5
2 Structural Isomers of Butane

30. Naming alkanes (IUPAC)
Identify the longest continuous chain of carbons.
= parent name/compound
The locations or other groups of atoms attached to the longest chain are identified and numbered by counting from the end of the molecule which keeps the numbering system as low as possible.
Hydrocarbon groups that are attached to the longest continuous chain and named using the parent name and changing the –ane suffix to –yl.
For groups attached, priority is given based on alphabetical order i.e. ethly before methyl

31. Functional groups
Is an atom or group of atoms which is responsible for the characteristic properties of a series of organic compounds
Eg. methyl, ethyl, propyl
Eg. halogens
Electronegative functional groups increase the molecules reactivity with polar molecules and solubility in polar molecule eg. water

32. Chloroalkanes
Physical state: Liquid, except for chloromethane and chloro-ethane, which are gases at room temperature
Boiling points higher than the corresponding alkanes(most liquids except C1 &C2), due to polar C-Cl bond(s) (but only weak)
Not soluble in water
Soluble in non-polar solvents such as cyclohexane
Because of their weak polarity, they are useful organic solvents, e.g. for
removing grease and oil from machinery
removing oil etc. from clothes - dry cleaning
Fully halogenated alkanes are flame retardant so used in fire extinguishers

33. Naming chloroalkanes
Last part of name comes from base alkane on which the molecule is built, e.g. chloroethane [2 carbons]
Number of chlorine atoms indicated by prefix mono, di, tri, tetra etc. in front of chloromethane, e.g. trichloromethane
Position of each chlorine atom given by a number before the name, e.g.
1,2,2-trichloropropane

34. Alkenes
Alkenes are different to alkanes; they contain DOUBLE COVALENT bonds.
CnH2n
Unsaturated
Ethene is the 1st member
C2 to C4 are gases, boiling pt increases with increasing carbon chain
More reactive than alkane
Undergoes addition rxns
Ethene
Butene
Test for alkenes = 1. they turn bromine water colourless 2. acidified KMnO4 colourless.
planar

36. Ethene is used to make ethanol for industrial use
make polyethene
By polymerisation rxn
(addition rxn with H2
as a by product)
Ethene is the gas that ripens fruit, and a ripe fruit emits the gas, which will act on unripe fruit. Thus, a ripe tomato placed in a sealed bag with green tomatoes will help ripen them.
Ethene is used to make ethanol for industrial use

37. Naming Alkenes Naming is similar to naming alkanes except:
The longest continuous chain must contain the double bond.
The base name now ends in –ene.
The carbons are numbered so as to keep the number for the double bond as low as possible.
Number the double bond on parent (in word or before) i.e. pro-1-ene, 1 propene
The number which identifies the location of the double bond takes priority to functional groups

38. Alkynes
An alkyne is a hydrocarbon with at least one carbon to carbon triple bond.
Naming an alkyne is similar to the alkenes, except the base name ends in –yne.
Even more reactive due to triple bond
Planar
Highly unsaturated
CnHn-2

39. Alcohols In the alcohols it is the OH [hydroxyl] group
General Formula CnH2n+1OH
Members of this Homologous Series are
Methanol CH3OH
Ethanol C2H5OH
Propanol C3H7OH
Butanol C4H9OH etc.

40. Classification

41. Primary Alcohols H H H | | | H - C - C - C - OH Propan-1-ol H H H
| | |
H - C - C - C - OH
H H H
Propan-1-ol
The C to which the OH is attached has only got one C attached directly to it.

42. Secondary Alcohols H H H | | | H - C - C - C - H H OH H Propan-2-ol
| | |
H - C - C - C - H
H OH H
Propan-2-ol
The C to which the OH is attached has got two C’s attached directly to it.

43. Tertiary Alcohol [Not needed now]|
H - C - H
H | H
| | |
H - C - C - C - H
| | |
H OH H
2, Methyl Propan-2-ol
The C to which the OH is attached has got three C’s attached directly to it.

45. Intermolecular Force between molecules dictate it’s B. Pt. and M. Pt

46. Boiling Points of alcohols
Higher than expected for their RMMs
due to polar OH group
Polarity due to a difference in electronegativity between O and H
O = : H = difference 1.4
leads to Hydrogen Bonding
Compare Methanol and Methane [RMM approx 30]

47. Solubility is controlled by the molecules attraction to water
As a general rule ‘Like dissolves like’ i.e. polar substance will dissolve other polar substances.
The lines get a bit blurry when you have slightly polar substances as the can have slight solubility or poor solubility i.e. they dissolve little bit

50. Solubility Methanol in
(i) cyclohexane – not soluble methanol is polar cyclohexane is not
(ii) water - completely soluble or miscible [infinitely soluble] because it is polar.
Like dissolves like
Polar dissolves polar
As alcohol gets bigger the polar part becomes less significant so it becomes less soluble in water and more soluble in cyclohexane

51. Ethanol and water can’t be totally separated by distillation.
Constant Boiling Mixture of 95% alcohol
To dry ethanol totally the last of water must be removed by drying agent e.g. CaO
Pure alcohol is called absolute alcohol

52. Butan-1-ol in
(i) cyclohexane is soluble
(ii) water pretty insoluble
The polar OH group is becoming less significant as the molecule gets bigger

53. Comparison with water Both have polar OH [hydroxyl] groups
Alcohols have a non-polar part
Water has a higher boiling point than alcohol because it has more polarity
It has 2 polar OH groups therefore H bonding is even more pronounced

54. Found in almond kernels
Aldehydes
-CHO
end in anal
Planar
Boiling points higher than the corresponding alkanes, due to polar +C = O- group, but lower than the corresponding alcohols
Short chain aldehydes are soluble in water due to the polar carbonyl group
As the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of the aldehyde increases, solubility in water decreases, while solubility in cyclohexane increases
Aromatic aldehyde
Found in almond kernels

55. Ketone
End in -one
Physical state: Butanone and propanone are liquids at room temperature
Boiling points higher than the corresponding alkanes, due to polar +C = O- group, but lower than the corresponding alcohols
Short chain ketones such as propanone are soluble in water due to the polar carbonyl group
Ketones are soluble in non-polar solvents such as cyclohexane
Propanone is used as a solvent (e.g. In nail varnish remover)

56. Carboxylic acid End in –oic acid
Physical state: Methanoic acid and ethanoic acid are liquids, while propanoic acid and butanoic acid are solids due to H bonding
Short chain carboxylic acids are soluble in water due to the polar -COOH group
Carboxylic acids are soluble in non-polar solvents such as cyclohexane
Boiling points higher than the corresponding alcohols
This is because carboxylic acids form dimers, where two carboxylic acid molecules are held together by two hydrogen bonds
This is possible due to polarity in both the C=O and O-H bonds in each carboxylic acid molecule
Examples
Methanoic acid is found in the sting of ants and nettles
Ethanoic acid is the principal acid in vinegar
Ethanoic acid is used in the manufacture of cellulose acetate
Propanoic acid, benzoic acid and their salts (e.g. sodium benzoate) are used as food preservatives
Long chain carboxylics acids are fatty acids (sub unit of lipids)

57. COOH

58. Boiling or Melting Points
Ethanol = 78’
Ethanoic Acid = 118’

59. Alcohol vs. Corresponding Carboxylic Acid B. Pt.
Alcohols: Have 1 Hydrogen bond between molecules
Carboxylic Acids: have 2 H bonds between its molecules

60. Dimer: a molecule or molecular complex consisting of two identical molecules linked together.

62. Solubility Of Carboxylic Acids

65. Esters
Esters are formed by the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol e.g.
CH3COOH CH3OH = CH3COOCH H2O
Ethanoic acid Methanol Methyl ethanoate
The first part of the ester name comes from the parent alcohol with the - anol changed to – yl and the second part of the name comes from the parent acid with the - oic acid changed to – oate.

66. Boiling Point and Solubility

70. Physical state: Liquid
Boiling points higher than the corresponding alkanes, but lower than the corresponding alcohols
Soluble in water and non-polar solvents such as cyclohexane
As the number of carbon atoms in a molecule of the ester increases, solubility in water decreases, while solubility in cyclohexane increases
Occur naturally in fruits and flowers– are responsible for their pleasant smells and flavours
Fats and oils are naturally occurring esters of long chain carboxylic acids
Ethyl ethanoate is used as a solvent for printing inks and paints