1. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT AND THE SHADOW OF WAR—1933-1941
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 – April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was the 32nd President of the United States. He was a central figure of the 20th century during a time of worldwide economic crisis and world war. Elected to four terms in office, he served from 1933 to 1945 and is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Theodore Roosevelt were fifth cousins but were close. FDR's wife Eleanor Roosevelt was Theodore's orphaned niece who he gave away in marriage to "cousin Franklin" in 1905.
During the Great Depression of the 1930s, Roosevelt created the New Deal to provide relief for the unemployed, recovery of the economy, and reform of the economic and banking systems, through various agencies, such as the Works Project Administration (WPA), National Recovery Administration (NRA), and the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA).[1] Although recovery of the economy was incomplete until World War II, several programs he initiated, such as the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), continue to have instrumental roles in the nation's commerce. Some of his other legacies include the Social Security system and the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB).
As Britain warred with the Axis nations, Roosevelt provided Lend-Lease aid to Winston Churchill and the British war effort before America's entry into World War II in December, On the home front, he introduced price controls and rationing. After the attack on Pearl Harbor by forces of the Japanese Empire and after the declaration of war on the United States by Nazi Germany and by Fascist Italy, Roosevelt introduced internment of Japanese Americans, German Americans, and Italian Americans.
Roosevelt led the United States as it became the 'Arsenal of Democracy'. Roosevelt, working closely with his aide Harry Hopkins, made the United States the principal arms supplier and financier of the Allies. America had a vast expansion of industry, the achievement of full employment, and new opportunities opened for African Americans and women. The new Conservative coalition, arguing disappearing unemployment, closed most relief programs like the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and Civilian Conservation Corps. As the Allies neared victory, Roosevelt played a critical role in shaping the post-war world, particularly through the Yalta Conference and the creation of the United Nations. Later, alongside the United States, the Allies defeated Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Chapter 34

2. The London Economic Conference
Roosevelt’s willing to be an isolationist if it would help the domestic economy.
66 nations meet. Purpose win agreement on measures to fight global depression, revive international trade, and stabilize currency exchange rates.
Roosevelt worries about the domestic recovery- pulls out.
Roosevelt’s rejection of the agreement gathered an overwhelmingly negative response from the British, the French, and internationalists in the United States:
World depression gets worse and everyone pursues their own policies.
Leads to an increase in nationalism.
Reduces chances for international cooperation on other issues
When the world economy collapsed after World War I, it was greatly assumed that the United States would serve as a hegemon. The agenda for the Conference, drafted amongst representatives of six major nations who met in Geneva in 1932, strongly stated that intergovernmental debts should be settled as they represented a major obstacle in the road to recover from the Great Depression.
There Europeans thought that “the settlement should relieve the world”[3], while American experts like Senator Borah strongly disagreed as “the troubles of the world were really due to the War, and to the persistence of Europe in keeping great armaments, and to the mismanagement of the silver;” therefore, he was not willing to postpone, reduce, or cancel the payment of debts “and have Europe go ahead with a programme which has practically sunk the world into its present economic condition.”[4]
The hope that the United States would continue adherence to the gold standard quickly vanished when President Roosevelt declared, the day after assuming office, the Emergency Banking Act of 1933 and banned gold exports, via Executive Order No. 6102, formally taking the nation off the gold standard. Later in May he approved the Thomas Amendment, a legislation that “required the President to pursue a policy of inflation through the issue of paper money.”
Roosevelt’s declaration during his inaugural speech of 1933: “I shall spare no effort to restore world trade by international economic readjustment, but the emergency at home cannot wait on that accomplishment” represented a clear signal to the participants in the Conference that he would resist foreign designs to revive the international economy.
Secretary of State to Roosevelt, Cordell Hull, led the American delegation to the Conference. The President ordered Hull not to enter into any discussions regarding currency stabilization. However by time the Conference gathered, President Roosevelt had changed his mind into currency manipulation to raise prices, and had American banking experts Oliver Sprague and James Paul Warburg conduct currency stabilization talks with their British and French counterparts.[7]
Roosevelt's Rejection. When the Conference opened on June 12, 1933, all attention rested on the tripartite currency discussions happening outside the Conference. By June 15, the unofficial American appointees with Montagu Norman of the Bank of England and Clement Moret of the Bank of France had drafted a plan for temporary stabilization.
Although Roosevelt was considering shifting again his diplomatic policy regarding a new median dollar-pound rate, he eventually decided not to enter into any commitment, even a tentative one.
On June 17, fearing the British and the French would seek to control their own exchange rates, President Roosevelt rejected the agreement they had reached with their British and French counterparts in spite of his negotiators’ pleas for his understanding that the plan was only a temporary device full of escape clauses.[8] Roosevelt’s rejection of the agreement gathered an overwhelmingly negative response from the British, French, and internationalist in the United States. British Prime Minister Ramsay Macdonald feared “Roosevelt’s actions would destroy the Conference” and Georges Bonnet, rapporteur of the French Monetary Commission, is said to have “exploded.”
Critics ascertain nationalism as a key player in Roosevelt’s decision to reject the agreement and indirectly causing the collapse of the Conference.[9]

3. Philippines and Russia
Philippines were a liability not an asset
Labor doesn’t want to compete with Pilipino workers
Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934—Provided for the independence of the Philippines after a twelve-year period of economic tutelage.
Gave up army bases, but keep Naval bases
US looks isolationist.
1933 US recognized the Bolshevik regime in USSR.
Wants to balance power of the Nazi regime
Anticommunists and Catholics objected.
The Tydings-McDuffie Act (officially the Philippine Independence Act; Public Law ) approved on March 24, 1934 was a United States federal law which provided for self-government of the Philippines and for Filipino independence (from the United States) after a period of ten years. It was authored by Maryland Senator Millard E. Tydings and Alabama Representative John McDuffie.
In 1934, Philippine politician Manuel L. Quezon headed a "Philippine Independence mission" to Washington, DC that successfully secured the act's passage in Congress.
The Tydings-McDuffie Act provided for the drafting and guidelines of a Constitution for a 10-year "transitional period" which became the government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines before the granting of Philippine independence, during which the US would maintain military forces in the Philippines. Furthermore, during this period the American President was granted the power to call into military service all military forces of the Philippine government. The act permitted the maintenance of US naval bases, within this region, for two years after independence.
The act reclassified all Filipinos that were living in the United States as aliens for the purposes of immigration to America. Filipinos were no longer allowed to work legally in the US, and a quota of 50 immigrants per year was established. Furthermore, the Act paved the way for the Filipino Repatriation Act of 1935.
Russian confiscation of American property and its failure to pay its wartime debts remained paramount issues deterring American recognition. At the same time, in the post-World War I era, national interest and the global order left little choice politically, economically or diplomatically but for the United States and the Soviet Union to establish some form of cooperative relationship. Here began what John Lewis Gaddis identifies as the tension between ideology and national interest. Wilson and Lenin, the United States and Russia, could brook no ideological compromises; each sought to establish its own system as the new world order. National interest, however, required pragmatic accommodation.
The decision to recognize the Soviet Union in 1933 reflected an attempt to balance to the irreconcilable between the United States and Russia: conflicting national interests and ideologies—a response perhaps analogous to defining the rationale for change in the nineteenth century as the industrial revolution and the railroad. As the global depression grew, factions within the United States (for consensus did not exist within the government or among corporate and business interests), viewed recognition as a means of helping the American economy through stabilizing trade relations with the Soviet Union. On the political front, Japan had begun aggressive expansion throughout Asia. To many Americans and Russians, diplomatic recognition appeared as a viable response to the growing threat of Japanese hegemony to Russia’s border

4. Becoming A Good Neighbor
Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy - more isolationism?
Gives up unpopular military intervention.
Marines out of Haiti, Cuba released from Platt.
Policy receives a test in 1938 when Mexicans seize American oil properties. No US troops
Policy was successful
The "Good Neighbor" policy was the foreign policy of the administration of United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–45) toward the countries of Latin America. The United States wished to have good relations with its neighbors, especially at a time when conflicts were beginning to rise once again, and this policy was more or less intended to garner Latin American support. Giving up unpopular military intervention, the United States shifted to other methods to maintain its influence in Latin America: Pan-Americanism, support for strong local leaders, the training of national guards, economic and cultural penetration, Export-Import Bank loans, financial supervision, and political subversion. The Good Neighbor Policy meant that the United States would keep its eye on Latin America in a more peaceful tone. On March 4, 1933, Roosevelt stated during his inaugural address that: "In the field of world policy I would dedicate this nation to the policy of the good neighbor--the neighbor who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others."[1] This position was affirmed by Cordell Hull, Roosevelt's Secretary of State at a conference of American states in Montevideo in December Hull said: "No country has the right to intervene in the internal or external affairs of another" (LaFeber, 376). In December of the same year Roosevelt again gave verbal evidence of a shift in U.S. policy in the region when he stated: "The definite policy of the United States from now on is one opposed to armed intervention."[2]

5. Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (1934)
Secretary of State Cordell Hull.
Aimed at both relief and recovery.
Negotiated tariff agreements between the United States and separate nations, particularly Latin American countries. It resulted in a reduction of duties.
Whittled down the worst parts of Hawley-Smoot.
President had authority without consulting Congress.
Gets agreements with 21 countries
Reduced the traditional US protective tarriffs – move toward free trade
The Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act (enacted June 12, 1934, ch. 474, 48 Stat. 943, 19 U.S.C. § 1351) provided for the negotiation of tariff agreements between the United States and separate nations, particularly Latin American countries.[1] It resulted in a reduction of duties.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt was authorized by the Act for a fixed period of time to negotiate on bilateral basis with other countries and then implement reductions in tariffs (up to 50% of existing tariffs) in exchange for compensating tariff reductions by the partner trading country. Roosevelt was also instructed to maximize market access abroad without jeopardizing domestic industry, and reduce tariffs only as necessary to promote exports in accord with the "needs of various branches of American production." A most favored nation clause was also included.
The Act was a response to the Hawley-Smoot tariff bill, which showed that Congress was unable to create a coherent, non-biased trade policy. It was used to negotiate tariff-reduction agreements with Canada, Argentina, Uruguay and Great Britain, among others. Many of its provisions were prototypes of the principal-supplier rules that formed a major part of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) after 1945.
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6. Rise of Hitler in Germany
Germans economically crushed by Versailles treaty. Desperate and resentful
Hitler a powerful orator and politically aggressive
Germany has a potent industrial base and technological talent.
US made things worse by refusing to ratify the League of Nations, thus eliminating the moral strength of that body.
The Nazis gradually devised an electoral strategy to win northern farmers and white collar voters in small towns, which produced a landslide electoral victory in September 1930 (jump from roughly 3% to 18% of the votes cast) due to the depression. Refused a chance to form a cabinet, and unwilling to share in a coalition regime, the Nazis joined the Communists in violence and disorder between 1931 and In 1932, Hitler ran for President and won 30% of the vote, forcing the eventual victor, Paul von Hindenburg, into a runoff election. After a bigger landslide in July 1932 (44%), their vote declined and their movement weakened (Hitler lost the presidential election to WWI veteran Paul von Hindenburg in April; elections of November 1932 roughly 42%), so Hitler decided to enter a coalition government as chancellor in January 1933.
Upon the death of Hindenburg in August 1934, Hitler was the consensus successor. With an improving economy, Hitler claimed credit and consolidated his position as a dictator, having succeeded in eliminating challenges from other political parties and government institutions. The German industrial machine was built up in preparation for war. In November 1937, he was comfortable enough to call his top military aides together at the "Führer Conference," when he outlined his plans for a war of aggression in Europe. Those who objected to the plan were dismissed.
Nazi Supporters

7. Japan also a growing threat.
Japan and Italy
Japan also a growing threat.
Resentful. Why?
Growing increasingly militaristic
Lusted after space and resources of neighbors. Why?
1934 terminated the naval Treaty and started aggressively building navy. American response?
1935 Mussolini attacks Ethiopia. Easily crushes it.
Seeking glory and empire for Italy in Africa
League of Nation reaction? Reason?
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini, KSMOM GCTE (July 29, 1883, Predappio, Forlì, Italy – April 28, 1945, Giulino di Mezzegra, Italy) was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism. He became the Prime Minister of Italy in 1922 and began using the title Il Duce by After 1936, his official title was "His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Duce of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire".[1] Mussolini also created and held the supreme military rank of First Marshal of the Empire along with King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, which gave him and the King joint supreme control over the military of Italy. Mussolini remained in power until he was replaced in 1943; for a short period after this until his death he was the leader of the Italian Social Republic.
Mussolini was among the founders of Italian fascism, which included elements of nationalism, corporatism, national syndicalism, expansionism, social progress and anti-communism in combination with censorship of subversives and state propaganda. In the years following his creation of the fascist ideology, Mussolini influenced, or achieved admiration from, a wide variety of political figures.[2]
Among the domestic achievements of Mussolini from the years 1924–1939 were: his public works programmes such as the taming of the Pontine Marshes, the improvement of job opportunities, and public transport. Mussolini also solved the Roman Question by concluding the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See. He is also credited with securing economic success in Italy's colonies and commercial dependencies.[3]

8. Better Keep to the Old Channel
Isolationism
Why didn’t America Act?
Distracted by the depression
Vividly recall the losses of WWI
feel safe behind the protection of two oceans,
largely believed that what happened in the rest of the world didn’t effect them.
Rise of fascists increased desire to avoid entanglement..
Johnson Debt Default Act.
preventing the debt-dodging nations from borrowing further in the United States
In 1934, Congress passed the Johnson Debt Default Act, preventing the debt-dodging nations from borrowing further in the United States.  Americans maintained the isolationist mentality due to the ocean borders.
Better Keep to the Old Channel

9. Congress Legislates Neutrality
Senator Gerald Nye (R-North Dakota), Head of the Senate Munitions Investigating Committee
Congress Legislates Neutrality
Who does the public now blame for WWI?
US loaned the United Kingdom and its allies 2.3 billion dollars
loaned Germany 27 million dollars
Nye Committee
Congress passes Neutrality Acts in 1935, 36 and ’37
when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would automatically go into effect.  No American could legally sail on a belligerent ship, sell or transport munitions to a belligerent, or make loans to a belligerent
The Nye Committee, officially known as the Special Committee on Investigation of the Munitions Industry, was a committee in the United States Senate which studied the causes of United States' involvement in World War I. There were seven members of the committee, which met between 1934 and Led by Senator Gerald Nye, the committee also included Senators Homer T. Bone, James P. Pope, Bennett Champ Clark, and Arthur H. Vandenberg. Alger Hiss served as the committee's general counsel. In total, the Nye Committee conducted 93 hearings and questioned more than 200 witnesses.
The committee reported that between 1915 and April 1917, the United States loaned Germany 27 million dollars. In the same period, the US loaned the United Kingdom and its allies 2.3 billion dollars, or about 85 times as much. From this data, some have concluded that the US entered the war because it was in American commercial interest for the United Kingdom not to lose.
During the 1920s and 1930s, dozens of books and articles appeared which argued that arms manufacturers had tricked the United States into entering World War I. In 1934, Senator Gerald P. Nye of North Dakota held hearings to investigate the country's involvement in WWI. The Nye Committee documented the huge profits that arms factories had made during the war. The investigation created the impression that these businesses influenced the United States' decision to go to war.
Responding to overwhelming popular pressure, Congress passed the Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937.  The acts stated that when the president proclaimed the existence of a foreign war, certain restrictions would automatically go into effect.  No American could legally sail on a belligerent ship, sell or transport munitions to a belligerent, or make loans to a belligerent.
The Neutrality Acts were made to keep the United States out of a conflict.  By declining to use its vast industrial strength to aid its democratic friends and defeat its totalitarian foes, the United States helped to provoke the aggressors.

10. Effect of Neutrality Acts
Is an abandonment of Americas traditional policy of freedom of the high seas and the right of Americans to ship to both sides in a war.
Effectively removed America from the arena as an agent that can stop or blunt war and aggression. Made America reactive
Encouraged totalitarian regimes and hurt democratic ones, because they received no aid from US.
The Neutrality Acts were laws that were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts.
The legacy of the Neutrality Acts in the 1930s was widely regarded as having been generally negative: they made no distinction between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as "belligerents"; and they limited the US government's ability to aid Britain against Nazi Germany. The acts were largely repealed in 1941, in the face of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
Neutrality Act of 1935
Roosevelt's State Department had lobbied for embargo provisions that would allow the President to impose sanctions selectively. This was rejected by Congress. The 1935 act, signed on August 31, 1935, imposed a general embargo on trading in arms and war materials with all parties in a war. It also declared that American citizens traveling on warring ships traveled at their own risk. The act was set to expire after six months.
Roosevelt invoked the act after Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in October 1935, preventing all arms and ammunition shipments to both countries. He also declared a "moral embargo" against the belligerents, covering trade not falling under the Neutrality Act.[3]
Neutrality Act of 1936
The Neutrality Act of 1936, passed in February of that year, renewed the provisions of the 1935 act for another 14 months. It also forbade all loans or credits to belligerents.
However, this act did not cover "civil wars," such as that in Spain ( ), nor did it cover materials such as trucks and oil. US companies such as Texaco, Standard Oil, Ford, General Motors, and Studebaker used this loophole to sell such items to Franco on credit. By 1939, Franco owed these and other companies more than $100,000,000.[4]
Neutrality Act of 1937
In January 1937, the Congress passed a joint resolution outlawing the arms trade with Spain. The Neutrality Act of 1937, passed in May, included the provisions of the earlier acts, this time without expiration date, and extended them to cover civil wars as well. Further, U.S. ships were prohibited from transporting any passengers or articles to belligerents, and U.S. citizens were forbidden from traveling on ships of belligerent nations.
Japan invaded China in July 1937, starting the Sino-Japanese War ( ). President Roosevelt, who supported the Chinese side, chose not to invoke the Neutrality Acts since the parties had not formally declared war

11. America Dooms Loyalist Spain
The Spanish Civil War ( ) shows fallacy of Neutrality policy
Franco and other fascist rebels tried to overthrow the left-leaning but democratic government of Spain. Franco is aided by Hitler and Mussolini.
Congress prohibits aid to EITHER side.
Condemns democratic Spain to slow strangulation
Dictators believe that Democracies will not take action to stop them.
The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted coup d'état by a group of Spanish Army generals, supported by the conservative Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (C.E.D.A), Carlist groups and the fascistic Falange Española de las J.O.N.S.,[4] against the government of the Second Spanish Republic, then under the leadership of president Manuel Azaña. The Civil War devastated Spain from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939, ending with the victory of the rebel forces, the overthrow of the Republican government, and the founding of a dictatorship led by General Francisco Franco. In the aftermath of the civil war, all right-wing parties were fused into the state party of the Franco regime.[4]
Republicans (republicanos) gained the support of the Soviet Union and Mexico, while the followers of the rebellion, nationalists (nacionales), received the support of Italy and Germany, as well as neighbouring Portugal.
The war increased tensions in the lead-up to World War II and was largely seen as a possible war by proxy between the Communist Soviet Union and the Fascist Axis of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. In particular, tanks and bombing of cities from the air were features of the later war in Europe. The advent of the mass media allowed an unprecedented level of attention (Ernest Hemingway, Martha Gellhorn, George Orwell and Robert Capa all covered it) and so the war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired, and for atrocities committed on both sides of the conflict. Like other civil wars, the Spanish Civil War often pitted family members and trusted neighbours and friends against each other. Apart from the combatants, many civilians were killed for their political or religious views by both sides, and after the war ended in 1939, Republicans were at times persecuted by the victorious Nationalists.

12. Appeasing Japan
1937 Japan invades Manchuria with the intent of making it a Japanese colony.
Rape of Naking
Roosevelt refuses to call this a war. Why?
The Quarantine Speech given by FDR in 1937 calling for an international "quarantine of the aggressor nations" as an alternative to the political climate of American neutrality and isolationism
“When an epidemic of physical disease starts to spread, the community approves and joins in a quarantine of the patients in order to protect the health of the community against the spread of the disease.”
The speech intensified America's isolationist mood, causing protest by non-interventionists and foes to intervention
Dec. 1937, USS Panay. 3 sailors men were killed, and forty-three wounded
Japan abuses Americans in China. Thinks US is weak
flat-bottomed craft built in Shanghai specifically for river duty, Panay served as part of the U.S. Navy's Yangtze Patrol in the Asiatic Fleet, which was responsible for patrolling the Yangtze River to protect American lives and property.
After invading China in the summer of 1937, Japanese forces moved in on the city of Nanking (now known as Nanjing) in December. Panay evacuated the remaining Americans from the city on December 11, bringing the number of people aboard to five officers, fifty-four enlisted men, four U.S. embassy staff, and ten civilians.
The following day, while upstream from Nanking, Panay and three Standard Oil tankers, Mei Ping, Mei An, and Mei Hsia, came under attack from Japanese naval aircraft. Panay was hit by two of the eighteen 60-kg (132 pound) bombs dropped by three Yokosuka B4Y Type-96 bombers and strafed by nine Nakajima A4N Type-95 fighters.[2] The Panay sank; three men were killed, and forty-three sailors and five civilians were wounded.
Two newsreel cameraman were aboard during the attack (Norman Alley of Universal News and Eric Mayell of Movietone News), and were able to film part of the attack and, after making the shore, the sinking of the ship in the middle of the river. Survivors were later taken on board the American vessel Oahu and the British gunboats HMS Ladybird and HMS Bee. Earlier the same day, a Japanese shore battery had fired on HMS Ladybird.
[edit] Diplomacy
It was a nervous time for the American ambassador to Japan, Joseph C. Grew, who feared the Panay incident might lead to a break in diplomatic ties between Japan and the United States. Grew, whose experience in the foreign service spanned over thirty years, "remembered the Maine," the U.S. Navy ship that blew up in Havana Harbor in The sinking of the Maine had propelled the United States into the Spanish-American War. Grew hoped the sinking of the Panay would not be a similar catalyst.
The Japanese government took full responsibility for sinking the Panay, but continued to maintain that the attack had been unintentional. The formal apology reached Washington on Christmas Eve.
Although Japanese officials maintained that their pilots never saw any American flags on the Panay, a U.S. Navy court of inquiry determined that several U.S. flags were clearly visible on the vessel during the attacks. Four days before the apology reached Washington, the Japanese government admitted that the Japanese Army had strafed the Panay and the survivors after the navy airplanes had bombed it. The Japanese government paid an indemnity of $2,214, to the United States on April 22, 1938, officially settling the Panay incident.
But, US Navy cryptographers had intercepted and decrypted traffic relating to the attacking planes which clearly indicated that they were under orders during the attack, and that it had not been a mistake of any kind. This was not released for the obvious secrecy reasons.
Immediately after the Panay bombing, a lesser known aspect of the story started to unfold. In the days following the Panay incident, Japanese citizens began sending letters and cards of sympathy to the American embassy in Tokyo. Ambassador Grew wrote that "never before has the fact that there are 'two Japans' been more clearly emphasized. Ever since the first news of the Panay disaster came, we have been deluged by delegations, visitors, letters, and contributions of money — people from all walks of life, from high officials, doctors, professors, businessmen down to school children, trying to express their shame, apologies, and regrets for the action of their own Navy." In addition, "highly placed women, the wives of officials, have called on Alice [Grew's wife] without the knowledge of their husbands." The ambassador noted, "that side of the incident, at least, is profoundly touching and shows that at heart the Japanese are still a chivalrous people."

13. Hitler on the Rise
1935 breaches Versailles treaty by reintroducing the draft.
1936 marches troops into the demilitarized Rhineland
Britain and France reaction.
Hitler begins to persecute and discriminate against the Jews.
1937 starts building the military at an aggressive pace,
March 1938 Hitler marches without resistance into Austria
Hitler then begins making demands for the Sudetenland

14. Munich Conference Allies desperate to avoid war.
30 September 1938] Hitler, Chamberlain, Mussolini and Daladier signed the Munich Agreement.
Democracies have no real leverage. Appeasement
Allowed Germany to erase the boundaries of the Versailles Treaty without taking military action. It was also agreed that the sovereignty of Poland would be protected, and thus a line was drawn that Germany would not be allowed to cross without risking full scale war.
Neville Chamberlain: “Peace in our time”
The phrase "peace for our time" was spoken on 30 September 1938 by British prime minister Neville Chamberlain in his speech concerning the Munich Agreement.[1] It is primarily remembered for its ironic value. The Munich Agreement gave the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia to Adolf Hitler in an attempt to satisfy his desire for Lebensraum or "living space" for Germany. The German occupation of the Sudetenland began on the next day, 1 October.
One year after the agreement, following continued aggression from Germany and its invasion of Poland, Europe was plunged into World War II.

15. Hitler-Stalin Pact
France-England attempt to negotiate a mutual defense pact with Stalin.
August, 1939, Stalin-Hitler sign a non-aggression pact.
Stalin’s motive?
Seals the fate of Europe.
Poland was also to be divided
Hitler’s demands territorial concessions from Poland.
The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact
On August 23, 1939, four days after the economic agreement was signed and a little over a week before the beginning of World War II, Ribbentrop and Molotov signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. (The pact is also referred to as the German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and the Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact.) Publicly, this agreement stated that the two countries - Germany and the Soviet Union - would not attack each other. If there were ever a problem between the two countries, it was to be handled amicably. The pact was supposed to last for ten years; it lasted for less than two.
What was meant by the terms of the pact was that if Germany attacked Poland, then the Soviet Union would not come to its aid. Thus, if Germany went to war against the West (especially France and Great Britain) over Poland, the Soviets were guaranteeing that they would not enter the war; thus not open a second front for Germany.
In addition to this agreement, Ribbentrop and Molotov added a secret protocol onto the pact - a secret addendum whose existence was denied by the Soviets until 1989.
The Secret Protocol
The secret protocol held an agreement between the Nazis and Soviets that greatly affected Eastern Europe. For the Soviets for agreeing to not join the possible future war, Germany was giving the Soviets the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania). between the two - along the Narew, Vistula, and San rivers.
The new territories gave the Soviet Union the buffer (in land) that it wanted to feel safe from an invasion from the West. It would need that buffer in 1941.
Impacts of the Pact
When the Nazis attacked Poland in the morning on September 1, 1939, the Soviets stood by and watched. Two days later, the British declared war on Germany and World War II had begun. On September 17, the Soviets rolled into eastern Poland to occupy their "sphere of influence" designated in the secret protocol.
Because of the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, the Soviets did not join the fight against Germany, thus Germany was successful it its attempt to safeguard itself from a two-front war.

16. WWII Begins
Poland refuses and Germany marches in unleashing its Blitzkrieg 9/1/39.
WWII has begun.
Stalin moves into Eastern Poland
England and France declare war, but can’t do much about Poland, which surrenders in three weeks.
On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. The Polish army was defeated within weeks of the invasion. From East Prussia and Germany in the north and Silesia and Slovakia in the south, German units, with more than 2,000 tanks and over 1,000 planes, broke through Polish defenses along the border and advanced on Warsaw in a massive encirclement attack. After heavy shelling and bombing, Warsaw surrendered to the Germans on September 28, Britain and France, standing by their guarantee of Poland's border, had declared war on Germany on September 3, The Soviet Union invaded eastern Poland on September 17, The demarcation line for the partition of German- and Soviet-occupied Poland was along the Bug River.
In October 1939, Germany directly annexed those former Polish territories along German's eastern border: West Prussia, Poznan, Upper Silesia, and the former Free City of Danzig. The remainder of German-occupied Poland (including the cities of Warsaw, Krakow, Radom, and Lublin) was organized as the so-called Generalgouvernement (General Government) under a civilian governor general, the Nazi party lawyer Hans Frank.
Nazi Germany occupied the remainder of Poland when it invaded the Soviet Union in June Poland remained under German occupation until January 1945.

17. US Reaction to Fall of Poland
Roosevelt issues proclamation of neutrality.
US generally anti-Nazi.
Roosevelt wants to amend Neutrality Acts
Knows that European democracies are woefully unprepared and will not win on their own.
Wants to lift the arms-sale restrictions entirely.
But, knows that neither the nation nor Congress is ready for that.
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18. FDR calls a special session of Congress; passes Neutrality Act of 1939
Cash and Carry
FDR calls a special session of Congress; passes Neutrality Act of 1939
Cash-and-Carry
Selling point of Cash and Carry?
Purchases from England and France help lift US economy
At a special session of Congress on 21 September 1939, as war was spreading throughout Europe, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt requested the policy of cash and carry replace the Neutrality Acts of 1936.
The revision allowed the sale of material to belligerents, as long as the recipients arranged for the transport using their own ships and paid immediately in cash. The purpose was to hold neutrality between the United States and European countries, while still giving material aid to Britain. Previous policies forbade selling implements of war or lending money to belligerent countries under any terms. The economic situation in the US was rebounding at this time (after the Great Depression) but there was still a need for industrial manufacturing jobs. The Cash and Carry program helped to solve this issue and in turn Great Britain benefited from the purchase of arms and other goods. This act also made sure that the US did not give away all its supplies and rations.
The program was also aimed at preventing American intervention in the war, and required the buyers to send their own ships to American ports and assume all risk in transportation. US shipping interests were forbidden from entering into conflict zones.
The program also required all payments in cash currency, rather than on credit, preventing US businesses interests backing the success or failure of any warring nation. Because of the conclusion of the Nye Committee, many Americans believed that investment in a belligerent would eventually lead to American participation in war.
Analysis
Despite its success, this policy soon left European allies (primarily Britain) bankrupt and this forced US leaders to revise the plan. The revised plan was known as the Lend-Lease program, in which the European allies no longer had to pay cash or arrange transportation. Instead, the United States would expect payment at a later time.

19. Hitler Runs Amok April 1940 Hitler attacks Denmark and Norway.
May attacks Netherlands and Belgium, then France.
June 1940 France is forced to surrender
Miracle of Dunkirk
Very significant because saves a huge chunk of British army.
US shocked by quick fall of France
Impact on public attitude
Threat to US of German domination Europe
The city of Dunkirk was founded by Saint Eloi. In May 1940, during the battle of France, the British Expeditionary Force in France aiding the French, were cut off from the rest of the French Army by the German advance. Encircled by the Germans they retreated to the area around the port of Dunkirk. The German land forces could have easily destroyed the British expeditionary force, especially when many of the British troops, in their haste to withdraw, had left behind their heavy equipment. For some unexplained and still unknown reason, Adolf Hitler ordered the German army to stop the attack, favouring bombardment by the Luftwaffe. Some say it was because Hitler was still hopeful of establishing diplomatic peace with Britain before 1940 so the Germans could have a potential allied force against the Russians, while others contest that the unfavourable terrain (which was not suited to armoured vehicles) and a strategic German desire to retain strength for future operations was the real explanation. This lull in the action gave the British a few days to evacuate by sea. Winston Churchill ordered any ship or boat available, large or small, to pick up the stranded soldiers, and 338,226 men (including 120,000 French soldiers) were evacuated - the miracle of Dunkirk, as Churchill called it. It took over 900 vessels to evacuate the Allied forces. More than 40,000 vehicles as well as massive amounts of other military equipment and supplies were left behind; their value being less than that of trained fighting men. The British evacuation of Dunkirk through the English Channel was codenamed Operation Dynamo.

20. Congress approves 37 Billion
US Starts to Arm
FDR calls for building of huge air fleet and a two-ocean navy that would check both Germany and Japan.
Congress approves 37 Billion
More than the cost of WWI and 5-times larger than any annual budget for New Deal.
Congress passes a conscription law, Sept
America’s first peace-time draft.
Havana Conference of 1940
The Havana Conference was a conference held in the Cuban capital of Havana in 1940.
As Germany began to take over countries throughout Europe during World War II many colonies in the New World found themselves orphaned (such as those owned by Netherlands, Denmark and France). At the conference the United States thus agreed to share with its neighbors the responsibility of protecting the Monroe Doctrine. The Havana Conference marked a dramatic change in the use of the Monroe Doctrine. No longer was it to be used solely for economic dominance and imperialism by the United States, but in conjunction with its 20 neighbors, to defend the collective security of the Western Hemisphere.

21. August 1940 Battle of Britain begins Battle rages for months.
German advantages
British advantages.
British planes chew up Luftwaffe
The Battle of Britain (German: Luftschlacht um England) is the name given to the sustained strategic effort by the German Air Force (Luftwaffe) during the summer and autumn of 1940 to gain air superiority over the Royal Air Force (RAF), especially Fighter Command. The name derives from a speech made on 18 June 1940 in the House of Commons by Prime Minister Winston Churchill. He said: "The Battle of France is over. I expect the Battle of Britain is about to begin..."[8]
The Battle of Britain was the first major campaign to be fought entirely by air forces. It was the largest and most sustained bombing campaign attempted up until that date. The failure of Nazi Germany to reach its objectives—to destroy Britain's air defence or to force Britain out of the war by forcing an armistice or surrender—is considered both its first major defeat and a crucial turning point in the war.[9] Germany's plan was to gain air superiority, then launch Operation Sealion: amphibious and airborne invasion of Britain. Initially RAF airfields were attacked. As the Battle progressed, operations were extended to the strategic level: systematic destruction of aircraft production centres and ground infrastructure. Eventually the Luftwaffe and the RAF resorted to attacking areas of political significance and terror bombing tactics.[10]
British historians date the battle from 10 July to 31 October 1940, which represented the most intense period of daylight bombing. German historians usually place the beginning of the battle in mid-August 1940 and end it in May 1941, on the withdrawal of the bomber units in preparation for Operation Barbarossa, the Campaign against the USSR on 22 June 1941.

22. Impact of radio reports on Battle of Britain on US public opinion.
Battle of Britain in US
Edward R. Murrow.
Impact of radio reports on Battle of Britain on US public opinion.
Hitler eventually indefinitely postpones invasion—huge mistake.
Murrow gained his first glimpse of fame during the March 1938 Anschluss, in which Adolf Hitler engineered the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany. While Murrow was in Poland arranging a broadcast of children's choruses, he got word from Shirer of the annexation — and the fact that Shirer could not get the story out through Austrian state radio facilities. Murrow immediately sent Shirer to London, where he delivered an uncensored, eyewitness account of the Anschluss. Murrow then chartered a plane to fly from Warsaw to Vienna, so he could take over for Shirer.
At the request of CBS New York (most reference books say it was either chief executive William S. Paley or news director Paul White), Murrow and Shirer put together a "European News Roundup" of reaction to the Anschluss, which brought correspondents from various European cities together for a single broadcast. On March 13, 1938 the special was broadcast, hosted by Bob Trout in New York, and including Shirer in London (with Labour MP Ellen Wilkinson), reporter Edgar Ansel Mowrer of the Chicago Daily News in Paris, reporter Pierre J. Huss of the International News Service in Berlin, and Senator Lewis B. Schwellenbach in Washington, D.C. Reporter Frank Gervasi, in Rome, was unable to find a transmitter to broadcast reaction from the Italian capital but phoned his script to Shirer in London, who read it on the broadcast.
Murrow himself reported live from Vienna, in the first on-the-scene news report of his career: "This is Edward Murrow speaking from Vienna... It's now nearly 2:30 in the morning, and Herr Hitler has not yet arrived."

23. Fortress America?
Issue: Whether to provide scarce resources to GB or to husband all resources so that available to US
America First Committee.

24. Destroyer Deal British in desperate need of destroyers. Why?
In exchange, the US was granted land in various British possessions for the establishment of naval or air bases, on ninety-nine-year rent-free leases.
Isolationists scream
Is a clear departure from neutrality
But public opinion supported all aid to UK short of war.
On June 1, as the defeat of France loomed, President Roosevelt bypassed the Neutrality Act by declaring as "surplus" many millions of rounds of American ammunition and guns, and authorizing their shipment to England. But Roosevelt rejected Churchill's pleas for destroyers for the Royal Navy.
By August, while Britain and the Commonwealth stood alone against the Germany, the American Ambassador Joseph P. Kennedy reported from London that a British surrender was "inevitable". Seeking to persuade Roosevelt to send the destroyers, Churchill warned Roosevelt ominously that if Britain were vanquished, its colonial islands close to American shores could become a direct threat to America if they fell into German hands.
[edit] The deal
Finally on September 2, 1940, as the Battle of Britain intensified and the Luftwaffe and Royal Air Force fought in the skies over England, United States Secretary of State, Cordell Hull, signaled agreement to the transfer of the destroyers to the Royal Navy.
In exchange, the US was granted land in various British possessions for the establishment of naval or air bases, on ninety-nine-year rent-free leases, on:
Newfoundland (today part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador).
Eastern side of the Bahamas
Southern coast of Jamaica
Western coast of St. Lucia,
West coast of Trinidad (Gulf of Paria)
Antigua
British Guiana (present day Guyana) within fifty miles of Georgetown.
The agreement also stipulated Britain's acceptance of the US proposal for air and naval bases rights in:
The Great Sound and Castle Harbour, Bermuda
South and eastern coasts of Newfoundland
The US accepted the "generous action… to enhance the national security of the United States" and immediately transferred in return fifty U.S. Navy destroyers "generally referred to as the twelve hundred-ton type" (also known in references as the "flush-deck" destroyers, or the "four-pipers" after their four funnels). Forty-three destroyers initially went to the British Royal Navy and seven to the Royal Canadian Navy. In the Commonwealth navies the ships were re-named after towns, and were therefore known as the Town class, although they had originally belonged to three ship classes (the Caldwell-class, the Wickes-class, and Clemson-class). Before the end of the war, nine others also served with the Royal Canadian Navy.
Five of the Town class destroyers were manned by crews of the Royal Norwegian Navy, with the survivors later returned to the British Royal Navy. HMS Campbeltown was manned by Royal Netherlands Navy sailors before her assignment to ram the drydock gates and sacrifice herself in the St. Nazaire Raid. Nine other destroyers were eventually transferred to the Soviet Navy.
Six of the 50 destroyers were lost when torpedoed by U-boats, and three others, including the Campbeltown, were destroyed in other circumstances.

25. Wilkie? In 1940 Republicans nominate Wendell Wilkie.
A corporate lawyer in the United States and the Republican Party (GOP) nominee for the 1940 presidential election, despite having never held a prior elected political office.Attitude toward New Deal
foreign policy.
Wilkie does not exploit resentment against FDR among isolationists
Wilkie?
Wendell Lewis Willkie (February 18, 1892 – October 8, 1944) was a corporate lawyer in the United States and the Republican Party (GOP) nominee for the 1940 presidential election, despite having never held a prior elected political office.
Although Willkie in 1940 received more votes than any previous GOP candidate (22.3 million votes), he lost to Franklin D. Roosevelt in an Electoral College landslide: 449 to 82, carrying ten states.
Willkie's presidential campaign was centered around three major themes: the alleged inefficiency and corruption of Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal programs, Roosevelt's attempt to win an unprecedented third term as President, and the government's alleged lack of military preparedness. Willkie claimed that he would keep most of FDR's New Deal welfare and regulatory programs, but that he would make them more efficient and effective, and that he would work more closely with business leaders to end the Great Depression. Roosevelt's attempt to break the "two-term" tradition established by George Washington was also a focus of Willkie's criticism, as Willkie declared that "if one man is indispensable, then none of us is free." However, neither of these issues caught the public's attention, and as Willkie's support sagged he turned to criticism of Roosevelt's lack of preparedness in military matters. However, during the campaign Roosevelt shrewdly preempted the military issue by expanding military contracts and instituting a military draft. Although Willkie had initially supported the draft, he reversed his stance when polls showed that opposition to entering another world war was a popular issue for the Republicans. Willkie then began to claim that Roosevelt was secretly planning to take the USA into the European war against Germany. With this claim, his campaign managed to regain some of its momentum.[1]
"The anti-Roosevelt underground campaign in 1940 was venomous, and (Democratic National Chairman) Flynn accused the Republicans of conducting the 'most vicious, most shameful campaign since the time of Lincoln'. Much of the abuse centered on Eleanor and the Roosevelt family" (Lash, p. 629). However, the abuse went both ways, as the historian William Manchester noted: "above all, he [Willkie] should never have been subjected to the accusation of Henry Wallace, FDR's new vice-presidential candidate, that Willkie was the Nazis' choice."
On election day Roosevelt received 27 million votes to Willkie's 22 million, and in the Electoral College, Roosevelt defeated Willkie 449 to 82. Willkie carried ten states: Maine, Vermont, Michigan, Indiana, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado. However, Willkie did gain over six million more votes than the GOP's 1936 nominee, Alf Landon, and he ran strong in the rural Midwest, taking 57% of the farm vote. Roosevelt, meanwhile, carried every city in the nation with a population of more than 400,000, except for Cincinnati. Willkie's popular-vote total would remain the highest for a Republican until Dwight Eisenhower's election in 1952.

27. Lend-Lease By late 1940 Cash and Carry not working for Britain. Why?
FDR knows that Congress will not approve cash loans to allies.
Proposes Lend-lease.
FDR proposes making the US the arsenal of democracy.
This bill is vigorously debated throughout the nation.
Passes in March, Was a clear declaration of hostility to Hitler.
May, 1941 Germans sink first US merchant ship
Program of military and economic aid given by the U.S. to nations warring against the Axis powers in World War II. Despite the proclaimed neutrality of the U.S., Congress by the Lend-Lease Act of 1941 empowered President Franklin D. Roosevelt on behalf "of any country whose defense the President deems vital to the defense of the United States, to sell, transfer title to, exchange, lease, lend, or otherwise dispose of, to any such government any defense article" not expressly prohibited.

28. Atlantic Charter June 1941 Hitler invades the Soviet Union.
Takes the pressure off UK and divides his army.
What is he thinking?
Soviets are on the edge of defeat.
Roosevelt extends lend-Lease to Soviets. Extends 1 Bill. of what will eventually be 11 Billion.
Atlantic Conference-8/41. First of a series of meetings between Churchill and Roosevelt.
With 134 Divisions at full fighting strength and 73 more divisions for deployment behind the front, German forces invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, less than two years after the German-Soviet Pact was signed. Three army groups, including more than three million German soldiers, supported by 650,000 troops from Germany's allies (Finland and Romania), and later augmented by units from Italy, Croatia, Slovakia and Hungary, attacked the Soviet Union across a broad front, from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south. For months, the Soviet leadership had refused to heed warnings from the Western Powers of the German troop buildup along its western border. Germany and its Axis partners thus achieved almost complete tactical surprise. Much of the existing Soviet air force was destroyed on the ground; the Soviet armies were initially overwhelmed. German units encircled millions of Soviet soldiers, who, cut off from supplies and reinforcements, had few options other than to surrender.

29. Atlantic Charter
Leads to 8-point plan for post-war world. Atlantic Charter. Similar to Wilson’s 14 points
Pledges that countries will not have borders changed
Self determination and return to pre-war governments
League of nations type organization.
The Atlantic Charter was the blueprint for the world after World War II, and is the foundation for many of the international treaties and organizations that currently shape the world. The United Nations, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the post-war independence of British and French possessions, and much more is derived from the Atlantic Charter.
It was first drafted by Sir Alexander Codagan at the Atlantic Conference (codenamed Riviera) for British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, aboard warships in a secure anchorage in Ship Harbour, Newfoundland and was issued as a mimeographed press release on the morning of 14 August There has never been a signed copy of the Atlantic Charter. That name was applied to the contents of the press release by a Socialist London newspaper about August 19, The statement was drafted while the British were fighting in World War II against Nazi Germany. At the time of the Atlantic Conference, in August of 1941, the United States was technically and legally a neutral country, and not yet a combatant in World War II. The United States did not enter the War until after the Attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, The true purpose of the Atlantic Conference (apart from giving Churchill and Roosevelt a chance to get acquainted) was to allow the top generals and admirals from the United States and Britian to meet in secrecy and plan what military actions the United States could and would take once it was "drawn into" the War. As a neutral country, the United States was not supposed to be holding strategic war conferences with any of the combatants. The press release (which became known as the "Atlantic Charter") was a plausible explanation to the public for the secret, high-level meeting between Roosevelt and Churchill. Churchill had been pressing Roosevelt to declare war on Germany, but America's isolationist sentiments were still running strong with about 75% of the American adults polled that summer being against the U.S. getting involved in another "European war". Roosevelt was facing an up-coming national election and couldn't risk taking actions that ran against strong public sentiment. The press release issued subsequent to the Atlantic Conference was a ruse. It was never a legal and binding document. The images of it on the Web that are called "Official Document" are actually images of a propaganda war poster done up by the Office of War Information. That particular poster is OWI Poster No. 50. There were some 240,000 of that poster printed in 1943 and distributed to the American public. At a news conference in December of 1944, when pressed on the point, Roosevelt finally admitted, "No one ever signed the Atlantic Charter" though Roosevelt himself was the one who used the word "signed" in the radio-telegram that he sent to his press secretary, Stephen Early, with explicit wording and instructions on when and where to give out the press release. When asked, after the War, about the so-called Atlantic Charter, Churchill said that it, "took on a life of its own".

30. U.S. Destroyers And Hitler’s U-boats
Lend-Lease to GB was faltering. Clashes with Subs—
9/41—Greer attacked without damage
10/41—Kearny attacked but not sunk
10/41—Reuben James sunk with loss of more than 100.
Congress pulls Neutrality legislation and authorizes the arming of Merchant ships.

31. In the meantime……out in the Pacific
Japan is mired in China. US is pressuring them to get out,
Japan is heavily dependent on US steel, oil, gasoline and other war supplies. If US cuts them off, Japan is toast.
FDR reluctant to impose sanctions.
Late 1940 US does impose sanctions.
1941 freeze Japanese assets and ends all oil shipments.
Japan’s choices
US has broken code and knows that Japan plans to attack somewhere.
Warnings from US to Pearl Harbor are late in arriving.

32. Pearl Harbor
December 7, 1941 Japanese aircraft carriers launch waves of attack planes. Destroy most of US Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor.
8 battleships, most of aircraft, 3000 casualties.
But, three US carriers were out to sea and were spared.
Japanese failed to destroy repair facilities, allowing US to stay at Pearl and repair the fleet. Big mistake.
Next day—Congress declares war.
Japan and Germany are allies—Germany and Italy then declare war on US. U.S. declares war on Germany. We are in.

33. FDR Signs Declaration of War