1. Theorists and Theories
Early Childhood
To be used with the in-class handout, “Early Childhood: Development Theorists”
Theorists and Theories

2. What is a Theory?
the analysis of a set of facts in their relation to one another
a belief, policy, or procedure proposed or followed as the basis of action (e.g. her method is based on the theory that all children want to learn)
a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena (e.g. the wave theory of light)
a hypothesis assumed for the sake of argument or investigation
Theories are not facts – they are conclusions drawn from a set of observations, and can change with new information

3. Arnold Gesell Maturation theory Stages, or “milestones” of development
Predictable patterns of development
Genetically “pre-programmed”
Stages, or “milestones” of development
Motor skills
Tasks (“Gesell figures”)
Alphabet, counting determine school readiness
These skills needed for reading, math
Wait for the child if he/she isn’t ready!

4. Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytical development theories
Experiences in early childhood influenced later development
Child development a series of “psychosexual stages”
Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital
Fixation when child does not progress through a stage
Focused more on mental disorders than on the development of children

5. Erik Erikson Freud was his mentor! Theory expands upon Freud’s ideas
Eight stages of development – each based in overcoming a conflict
Feeling of success, failure at each stage affects overall functioning

6.
Basic trust versus mistrust: 0-18 months. Infant learns to trust or mistrust, as described above.
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: 18 months to 3 years. Success in new tasks and exploring environment leads to a sense of autonomy, believing you can do things for yourself. An unsuccessful outcome leads the child to feel shame, feeling small and worthless, and to doubt his or her ability to things autonomously.
Initiative versus guilt: 3 years to 6 or 7 years. Child either learns to use their own initiative rather than rely on others to initiate activities, or to feel guilt as though it were wrong for them to take initiative. The guilt ridden child will feel unaccepted and have negative feelings about oneself, and will feel that independent action is morally wrong.
Industry versus inferiority: 7 years to puberty. Now school age, the child develops a sense of industry, competence and mastery in their abilities, or inferiority. The child preoccupied with feeling inferior will engage in a self-fulfilling prophecy, in that fear of failure will either make the child avoid opportunities to succeed or make the child so nervous that his or her own anxieties interfere with ability to perform.
Identity achievement versus role confusion: Adolescence to beginning of adulthood. During this time, the adolescent develops a sense of who he or she is. The person is learning how very complex the world is and begins to develop goals, opinions, attitudes, and many new traits. Erikson discussed four identity statuses:
 Intimacy versus isolation: In early adulthood, one's twenties and thirties, the individual learns psychological intimacy, the ability to form close relationships with others, or will be stuck in psychological isolation in which he or she is unable to experience true closeness with others.
Generativity versus stagnation: In middle adulthood, the forties and fifties, the individual has lived long enough to evaluate the life he or she has lived while there is still time to make major changes if necessary. With a sense of generativity, the person feels concerns for what he or she generates, what he/she contributes to the world. Individuals with very narrow generative concerns might only care that they make certain their offspring do well but without caring what happens to the rest of the world. The unhealthy outcome stagnation could also be called self-absorption. The psychologically stagnant person's concerns are so narrow that he or she has little or no concern for contributing anything to anyone else.
Ego integrity versus despair: In late adulthood, the individual may look back at the life he or she has lived. The individual may experience ego integrity, a healthy self-concept with self esteem but not self-absorption, or may experience despair, which may involve depression over the life one has lived or anxiety about the impending end.

7. Jean Piaget Cognitive development theory
Children think differently from adults and play active role in building their own understanding (“little scientists”)
A child’s world view (schema) alters with introduction of new information
Assimilation applies new information to existing schema
Accommodation changes schema to reflect new information
A child sees a zebra for the first time and calls it a horse. The child has assimilated this information into her schema for a horse. When the child accommodates information, she takes into consideration the different properties of a zebra compared to a horse, perhaps calling a zebra a horse with stripes. When she eventually learns the name of zebra, she has accommodated this information.
When a child learns the word for dog, he starts to call all four-legged animals dogs.  This is assimilation.  People around him will say, no, that's not a dog, it's a cat.  The schema for “dog” then gets modified to restrict it to only certain four-legged animals.  That is accommodation.

8. Piaget’s Stages of Development
Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)
Child builds understanding of self, reality through interaction
Differentiates between self, objects (also object permanence)
Assimilates, accommodates information
Preoperational stage (ages 2 – 4)
Child needs concrete examples
Egocentric point of view
No abstract concepts, simple classification of objects
Concrete operations (ages 7 – 11)
Accommodation increases with more life experiences
Beginnings of abstract thought, conceptualization
Formal operations (ages 11 and up)
Concrete objects no longer required for rational judgments
Deductive, hypothetical reasoning
Abstract thinking similar to adult processes

9. Maria Montessori
Like Piaget, also believed children weren’t “adults in small bodies”
Her “method” of educating children rejects traditional grading or assessment models
Promotes learning by presenting child with subjects to spark their interest
Let the child direct his/her own learning
Adults stand back, OBSERVE!
During “sensitive periods” a child’s mind is more open and able to absorb information, learn skills
Each age group requires an environment specific to that age group

10. B. F. Skinner
A behavioral theorist – focused on how environment affects behavior
Based on observations – not thoughts, motivations, feelings
“Operant conditioning” theory
Behavior shaped by consequences over time
Positive, negative reinforcements and punishments
Behavior is learned under the “condition” of associating that behavior with a reward
Skinner’s most famous experiment was to put a rat in a box with a lever; the rat learned that by pressing the lever, it got food. The more frequently it pressed the lever, the more frequently it received food. Thus it associated lever-pressing with something good, and would do it on the expectation of a reward.
Positive reinforcers have value for the individual receiving them (such as food, water, a “treat” of some kind). These increase operant behaviors.
Negative reinforcers have no value to the recipient – in fact, they may cause harm, pain or injury (such as a hot room). These modify behavior by causing an individual to take action to escape or avoid it.

11. Albert Bandura
Stanford professor and advocate of social learning theory
Children learn new behavior by observing, imitating the actions of
Parents
Other adults
Peers
Intrinsic reinforcements (a sense of accomplishment, pride in one’s work) also fosters learning
Adults should model the behavior they wish children to learn

12. http://www. southalabama
Albert Bandura’s social learning theory (also called social cognitive theory)

13. Lev Vygotsky
Sociocultural theory focused on interaction between developing children and the culture in which they live
Learning is “cognitive development through social interaction”
Development driven by language, social context
Children learn best through hands-on activities (active learning)
Adult guidance at appropriate levels for child’s age, abilities

14. The Zone of Proximal Development
What I can do
What I can do with help
What I can’t do
Lev Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development”

15. Abraham Maslow Best known for his theories of human motivation
Most often this “hierarchy of needs” displayed as a pyramid
Fundamental survival needs at the base
Social, psychological needs farther up the pyramid
Self-actualization, outward view at the top
Higher-level needs can only be met once lower-level needs are satisfied

16. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Never fully satisfied: motivators like truth, justice, wisdom, “meaning”
Recognition, attention, social status, accomplishment, respect
Friendship, belonging, love
Maslow said that all people seek to fulfill their most critical survival needs first – before attempting to fulfill more complex, higher-level needs.
At the point where an individual is “self-actualized” – according to Maslow – his/her focus is more outward (“we”) rather than inward (“me”). Self-actualization under this model is never fully achieved, and is an ongoing process.
Safety, security, money
Air, water, food, shelter, sleep

17. Robert Coles Child psychologist
Wrote the story of Ruby Bridges, one of the first African- American children to attend a desegregated school in 1960
Children’s “moral intelligence” is determined by following the example of adults around them
Learn right from wrong
Sets “moral compass” – positive OR negative!
Children very sensitive to cultural ideals, values
Family provides life-lessons, examples of strong character (family has greatest influence)