1. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology
Authored by: Melanie Hester 2017

2. Why are we here?
Obviously, to learn about human anatomy and physiology.
But, what does that mean?
Before we begin, we’ve got to figure a few things out:
What’s a human?
What’s anatomy?
What’s physiology?

3. What are humans? Organisms are classified as human because they are:
Animals
Vertebrates
Possess backbones
Mammals
Possess:
Mammary glands
Hair
Endothermy (i.e., we generate heat internally)
Heterodonty (i.e., we have teeth w/ different shapes and functions)
3 middle ear bones.

4. What is anatomy? Anatomy is defined as the study of… Structure
Structure refers to the shapes, sizes, and characteristics of the components of the human body.
The word anatomy comes from 2 words:
Ana which means “up or apart”
Tomos which means “to cut”
Why these two words????

5. A Little Historical Perspective

6. Early Greeks
Greeks explained illness in terms of the 4 body humors (fluids).
Thought the humors were governed by air, water, fire, and earth
Healthy person had all four humors in balance.

7. Bloodletting was a way of getting rid of excess humors.

8. Physicians had to know the proper prayers and charms wherewith to approach "Apollo the Healer," who would tell them what kind of herb poultice to put on a wound.

9. Many “doctors” practiced by trial and error
Many “doctors” practiced by trial and error. If they made a lot of errors, people quit going to them.
Socles, a physician, treated a hunchback by piling three solid stones, each four feet square, on his spine. He was crushed and died, but he became straighter.

10. Hippocrates (460 to 379 BC) Early Greek physician
Believed that illness had a physical cause
Rejected superstitions
Based medical treatments on observations

11. Claudius Galen (120 to 200)
Roman physician, “team doctor” for the gladiators.
Kept them alive so they could fight again.

12. Did not dissect humans, but did extensive work on pigs and monkeys.
His mistake was to assume that humans and animals were identical internally.
His writings were taken as “law” for hundred of years.

13. Early anatomical drawing based on misinformation

14. Role of Religion Many religions influenced the study of the body.
Against church doctrine to dissect a human.

15. Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 to 1519)
Artists in Renaissance period interested in human form, so studied anatomy.
Da Vinci made hundreds of anatomically correct drawings.
He dissected bodies in secret.

17. Andreas Vesalius (1514 to 1564)
Barber surgeon (combination barber, dentist, doctor).
Got special permission from the Pope to dissect criminals.
First scientist to understand human anatomy.
Wrote the first accurate book on human anatomy – Fabrica.

18. Shortage of cadavers
In England and Scotland, medical schools began to open.
No one donated bodies to science – churchgoers believed in literal rising from grave, so dissection spoiled chances of resurrection.
Became a tradition to rely on executed prisoners, even up to 18th and 19th centuries.

20. Serious Crimes
The added punishment of being dissected after death was considered another deterrent from crime.
Ex. – Steal a pig: you were hung
Kill a person: you were hung and dissected
Anatomists were often associated with executioners.

21. Because they needed body parts, anatomists at medical school bought odd things.
A man could sell the leg of his son if it had to be amputated

22. William Harvey (English) Circa 1590
“Father of Anatomy”; studied circulatory system
Harvey dissected his own freshly dead family members (his father and sister) before burial.

24. Some medical students raided grave yards; some professors did also.
Grave Robbing
Some medical students raided grave yards; some professors did also.
In certain Scottish schools in 1700s, you could trade a corpse for your tuition.

25. Resurrectionists
By 1828 in London, body snatchers (or resurrectionists) provided the medical schools with corpses.
Not a crime; a dead body could not be owned or stolen.
(Anatomy studies were only conducted from October to May to avoid stench of decomposition.)

26. Wealthy people chose to be buried in iron cages, some covered in concrete. Also churches built “dead houses” which were locked and guarded.

27. William Burke and William Hare Circa 1828
2 resurrectionists
Hare owned a boarding house; he occasionally killed a border who was late on rent. (Killed 15 of them)
Did it by pressing pillow to man’s face while Burke lay his body weight on top of victim. Became known as “Burking.”
Bones made into skeletons for medical school. Skin used to make wallets.

29. Anatomy Act of 1832 – bodies of poor who were not claimed for burial could be used by anatomists.
Operated under this same concept until recently.
Donations are on the rise.

30. Types of Anatomy

31. Types of Anatomy We can divide our study of structure into 2 parts:
Study of stuff seen by the naked eye (Gross Anatomy).
Study of stuff seen ONLY with the microscope (Microanatomy).
We can divide microanatomy into:
Histology – study of tissues
Cytology – study of individual cells.

32. Gross Anatomy
Regional – all structures in one part of the body (such as the abdomen or leg)
Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by system
Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin

33. Microscopic Anatomy Cytology – study of the cell
Histology – study of tissues

34. Developmental Anatomy
Traces structural changes throughout life
Embryology – study of developmental changes of the body before birth

35. Physiology Physiology is defined as the study of function –
Physiology is where we figure out how stuff works.
How do muscles contract?
How do we run?
How does our heart beat?

36. Physiology Considers the operation of specific organ systems
Renal – kidney function
Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system
Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and blood vessels
Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the cellular or molecular level

37. Physiology
Understanding physiology also requires a knowledge of physics, which explains electrical currents, blood pressure, and the way muscle uses bone for movement

38. Principle of Complementarity
An anatomical structure usually reflects its function [Form follows function]
What a structure can do depends on its specific form

39. Some Important Themes
Biology is hierarchical with each level building on the level below it.
Each level of biological structure has emergent properties.
Cells are an organism’s basic unit of structure and function.
Structure and function are correlated at all levels of biological organization!!!!!!!!
Regulatory mechanisms ensure a dynamic balance in living systems.
Emergent properties – Those which a collection/complex system has, but which the individual members do not have. e.g. the heart is made of heart cells but heart cells on their own don’t have the ability to pump blood. You will need the whole heart to be able to pump blood. Thus, the pumping property of the heart is emergent.

40. Why Are Levels of Structure Important?
In this class, we’ll study all levels and see how they work together to create structures and allow them to function.
In essence, the combination of these different yet connected levels allows life to proceed.
But we must also be aware of emergent properties.
Things are often much more than simply a sum of their parts.
Consider a hammer which is made of a head and a handle. Either piece by itself is of little use to drive a nail – but put together, they perform the task quite easily.
Or consider table salt – sodium chloride (NaCl). By themselves, chlorine is a poisonous gas and sodium an explosive metal. But when bound together, they create something much, much different.
We must be aware of emergent properties as well as reducing structures to their component parts.

41. Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical – atoms combined to form molecules
Cellular – cells are made of molecules
Tissue – consists of similar types of cells
Organ – made up of different types of tissues
Organ system – consists of different organs that work closely together
Organismal – made up of the organ systems

42. Levels of Structural Organization
Smooth muscle cell
Molecules
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules 2
Atoms 1
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules
Smooth muscle tissue
Heart 3
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells
Cardiovascular system
Blood vessels
Epithelial tissue
Smooth muscle tissue
Blood vessel (organ) 6
Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems
Connective tissue 4
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues 5
Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely
Figure 1.1

43. Can Anatomy & Physiology Be Separated?
NOOOOOOO!!!!! Absolutely not!
Structure and function are undeniably connected. We cannot divorce them.
What do we mean by this?
Can you eat soup with a fork?
When you consider the structure of an organ, cell, or anything for that matter you must also consider its function!

44. Related Fields of Study
Obviously, anatomy and physiology come under the rubric of biology – the study of life.
An incredibly integral field is pathology – the study of disease.
Why is pathology so important in learning A&P?
Another super important field is embryology, the study of how a single zygote (i.e., a fertilized egg) turns into a fully-fledged human being with trillions of cells.
Why is embryology so important to A&P?

45. Any Questions?

46. A Case Study..
In 2007, Kati Mori took part in the London Marathon - her fourth, and the hottest on record, with temperatures peaking at 75 F. Conscious of the repeated advice to maintain fluid intake, she took frequent drinks at the water stations along the route.
By the 18th mile, Kati felt bad but was determined to finish, Near the end, she needed help from other runners to stay upright; hours later she was in the hospital, suffering from severe diarrhea, headache, vomiting and increasing confusion, with her legs endlessly mimicking a running motion. "I thought I was still in the marathon," she says.
Essential Question: What happened to Kati Mori at the London Marathon?

47. Stayin’ Alive Your body has about 100 trillion cells in it.
For your life to NOT end abruptly, these cells need to have the correct amount of:
Oxygen
Nutrients
Waste removal
Heat
Ions (sodium, calcium, etc.)
Lots of other stuff

48. Integumentary System Structures: Functions:
- Skin, hair, sweat and oil glands
Functions:
Forms the external body covering
Protects deeper tissues from injury
Involved in vitamin D synthesis
Prevents desiccation, heat loss, and pathogen entry
Site of pain and pressure receptors

49. Major Body Systems

50. Skeletal System Structures: Functions: The 206 bones of the human body
Protects and supports body organs
What characteristics might bone have that
allows it to support and protect?
Provides a framework that muscles can use to create movement
Hemopoiesis (synthesis of blood cells)
Mineral storage
Bone contains 99% of the body’s store of what mineral? (Hint  you can get this mineral from drinking milk)

51. Muscular System Structures: Functions: The 600+ muscles of the body
Locomotion
Manipulation of the environment
Maintaining posture
Thermogenesis (generation of heat)

52. Nervous System Structures: Functions:
Brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves
Functions:
Fast-acting control system of the body
Monitoring of the internal and external environment and responding (when necessary) by initiating muscular or glandular activity

53. Endocrine System Structures: Functions: Hormone-secreting glands
Pituitary, Thyroid, Thymus, Pineal, Parathyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas, Small Intestine, Stomach, Testes, Ovaries, Kidneys, Heart
Functions:
Long-term control system of the body
Regulates growth, reproduction, and nutrient use among other things.

54. Cardiovascular System
Structures:
Heart, Blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries)
Functions:
The heart pumps blood thru the blood vessels.
Blood provides the transport medium for nutrients (glucose, amino acids, lipids), gases (O2, CO2), wastes (urea, creatinine), signaling molecules (hormones), and heat.

55. Lymphatic/Immune System
Structures:
Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes, Spleen, Thymus, Red bone marrow
Functions:
Returning “leaked” fluid back to the bloodstream,
Disposal of debris
Attacking and resisting foreign invaders (pathogens i.e., disease-causing organisms)

56. Respiratory System Structures: Functions:
Nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
Functions:
Constantly supply the blood with O2, and remove CO2
Regulate blood pH

57. Digestive System Structures: Functions:
Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
Functions:
Ingestion and subsequent breakdown of food into absorbable units that will enter the blood for distribution to the body’s cells

58. Urinary System Structures: Functions:
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
urethra
Functions:
Removal of nitrogenous wastes
Regulation of body’s levels of water, electrolytes, and acidity

59. Reproductive System Structures: Functions: Male: Female:
Testes, scrotum, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, penis
Female:
Ovary, uterine tube, uterus, cervix, vagina, mammary glands
Functions:
Production of offspring