1. The Impact of Science and the Concept of Health on the Theoretical and Professional Development of Physical Education:
Chapter 11
Mechikoff, R.A., A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Sixth Edition © 2014, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

2. 19th Century and Health Health and fitness were fashionable
Major concern of Americans and Europeans
Popular topic in books, lectures, articles
Endless variety of health enhancement techniques
Health promotion and wellness were major components in 19th century physical education

3. 19th Century and Health
Health was concern to Americans as disease was prevalent
Influenza outbreak (1917), cholera, smallpox, measles

4. Medicine in 19th Century State of medical knowledge ineffective
Status of physicians in 19th century
Not recognized as exclusive guardians of health
Absence of educational standards
growing anti-elitist feeling undermined occupational professions

5. Medicine and 19th Century
New scientific ideas – cell, germ theories
Health reform
Popular interest in health and scientific discoveries
Alternative medical theories and treatments emerged
Vegetarianism, electropathy, homeopathy
Thomasonianism: be your own M.D.

6. Emergence of biology Biology was premier science of period
Three general concepts: form, function, and transformation
Charles Darwin: Scientific method and scientific discoveries reinforced “modern culture”
Evolution
Organic development grounded in science
Physical education viewed as developing individuals

7. Social Change in 19th Century America
Period of radical change in American society
Emergence of a middle class
Bureaucratic society of specialization, expertise
Physical education experienced this change
Sought to reflect social ideas of this era
Specialists, organizations developed to determine needs and direction of the emerging profession

8. Social Change in 19th Century
Traditionally unchallenged authority of law, religion, and medicine was gone
New disciplines were developed to house the new and evolving bodies of knowledge
Colleges and universities became increasingly professional
Medicine began to develop subdisciplines
Physical education was one of these groups

9. Physical Education History
November 1885: Experts (mostly M.D.’s) meet to discuss current issues in physical education
Battle of the Systems
Common interest in physical education
American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (AAAPE) formed
Growth of physical education was furthered by
Teacher-training institutions
Abundant gymnasiums
Programs in non-school settings (YMCA)
11-9
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10. Physical Education History
Early physical education programs used German system, Swedish system or a combination of both
Calisthenics developed
Catherine Beecher ( )
Dioclesian Lewis ( )
11-10
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11. Physical Education History: Beecher and Lewis
Catherine Beecher and Dioclesian Lewis incorporated unique exercises not associated with “traditional” gymnastics
devoted efforts to promote women’s health
Beecher’s calisthenics:
26 lessons in physiology, two courses in calisthenics
Used light exercises
Wanted students to develop beautiful, strong bodies
Corrective focus
11-11
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12. © 2014 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Female student exercising with pulleys, Western High School (ca. 1890s)
Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.
11-12
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13. Theoretical Basis of Physical Education
1885: American Association of Physical Education formed from AAAPE
Developed theoretical basis for physical education
Tested and untested assumptions that were used to explain physical activity
Many ideas and positions emerged
Cultural values, especially of middle class, played an important part
11-13
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14. Physical Education History
Theoretical basis emerged in middle 19th century
Physical education good for individual and community
Three distinct periods in theory development:
11-14
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15. Theory Development in Physical Education
Characterized by 19th-century beliefs
Health as balance between mind, body, spirit
Changing concept of health
Individuals desired self-improvement
Science was provider of truth
tools of science were the method
Growth of anthropometry
11-15
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16. Theory Development in Physical Education
Transitional period
Major debates regarding appropriate methods and goals of physical education
Began to accommodate sport as part of theory
11-16
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17. Theory Development in Physical Education
Accepted psychological and behavioral principles into theoretical foundation
Used popular beliefs about exercise to influence public
11-17
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18. Biological and Philosophical Issues
Science perpetuated idea of materialism
Whole as the sum of its parts
Society viewed as “social organism”
Individual a “cell” in the “body”
Charles Darwin’s work influenced this view
Psychology shifted focus from study of mind to study of behavior
Sought to determine how mind and body were related
Studied the “will” (James) and “character” (Carpenter)
11-18
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19. Biological and Philosophical Issues
Two rationales for P.E. in late 19th Century
Mind is a product of biology
Character can be acquires through the will
Science began to challenge epistemology of dualism
Two separate, equal parts or one interrelated whole?
11-19
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20. Biological and Philosophical Issues: Evolution
Combined with other sciences (physiology) to justify physical education
Exercise thought to improve the species
Crucial to normal evolutionary development
Could also help with nervous disorders
Neurasthenia Gravis
Built brain power and “cerebral mass”
11-20
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21. Women: Mothers of the Race
Health particularly important for women
Progenitors of life
Exercise should be tailored to their “special” physiology
Victorian attitudes imposed on types of activity & dress
11-21
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22. Women and Sport
Western High School Girl’s Basketball (ca. 1890s)
Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.
11-22
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23. Women and Sport
Western High School Girl’s Class with Dumbbells (ca. 1890s)
Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.
11-23
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24. Women, Higher Education, P.E.
Growth of higher education for women in post-Civil War years
Nervous system received much attention
American women thought to have increased number of nervous disorders
Women have been generally overlooked regarding contributions to P.E.
Delphine Hanna: first full professor of P.E.
11-24
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25. Golden Age of Anthropometry: 1885-1900
Anthropometry: new academic area
Involved measurement of body segments, girths, lengths
Used by many disciplines to disprove theories on human nature
Members of different classes, races
Particularly suited for P.E. research
Sought to legitimize P.E. through quantification
11-25
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26. Golden Age of Anthropometry: 1885-1900
Dudley Sargent: used studies to promote human improvement through exercise
Anthropometry: cutting edge of P.E. research
Dudley Sargent
Edward Hitchcock
11-26
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27. Dudley Sargent
11-27
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28. Defining Scope of the Discipline
P.E. used scientific evidence to support exercise as good for society
Attempted to gain acceptance of both society and science
Paradigm problems emerged
Lack of body of research
Some scientists left profession
Anthropometry dominated through 1890s
11-28
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29. Contributions of German Gymnastics
Primary pedagogical emphasis in schools was gymnastics
German gymnastics popular
Mass number of German immigrants contributed to several Turner societies
Began programs in East and Midwest
1860: Dio Lewis introduced system in Boston
Swedish system introduced at Johns Hopkins
11-29
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30. Physical Education the American Way
1889: Boston conference to develop “American” version of gymnastics
Discussed strengths of each system
Baron Pierre de Coubertin in attendance
Discussed what methods to use in American school system
11-30
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31. Changing Concepts & a Changing Profession
Health as balance of mind, body, will was challenged by emerging theory
Germ theory undermined
Faith in medicine’s ability to promote and sustain health
Focus on growth of professions (science, medicine) affected education, P.E.
Career opportunities in P.E. increased
11-31
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32. Professional Preparation of Teachers
Debates over training of P.E. teachers
Between AAAPE administrators and school teachers
Primary training in medicine or education?
Normal school facilitated training for teachers
1887: YMCA International Training School
1891: First graduate coursework
Physiological psychology, history/philosophy, anthropometry, literature of physical education
11-32
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33. Professional Preparation of Teachers
Dudley Sargent: Harvard Summer School of Physical Education opened in 1887
1866: California passed law requiring P.E. in schools
To promote health and vigor
Provide means for military defense
Other states followed throughout 1890s
11-33
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34. Professional Preparation of Teachers
Four-year programs:
Stanford, Harvard, U. of California, Nebraska, Oberlin, Columbia U., U. of Wisconsin
Began to place departments in education
Emergence of state legislation
Need to train physical educators
1921: Compulsory P.E. in 28 states
1930: teaching certification required in 38 states
11-34
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35. Professional Preparation of Teachers
P.E. leaders continued to debate what constituted a trained physical educator
Struggle to attract competent recruits
Perception that teachers taught only play and not sciences
Tremendous need for teachers allowed minimum training
Factors led to feelings of professional inadequacy
11-35
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