1. Gender Roles
Chapter 16

2. Some Definitions
Sex—the biological category of male or female; sexual intercourse
Gender—cultural, social, and psychological meanings associated with masculinity or femininity
Gender roles—behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits designated either masculine or feminine in a given culture
Gender identity—A person’s psychological sense of being male or female
Sexual orientation—direction of a person's emotional and erotic attractions

3. Gender Role Stereotypes
The beliefs and expectations people hold about the typical characteristics, preferences, and behaviors of men and women
In the US, when men and women accept the female stereotype more positively than the male stereotype, “benevolent sexism” results. Contributes to gender inequality.
There is a high degree of agreement on the characteristics associated with each sex among people of many different cultures (Williams, 1999; Best, 2001).

4. Gender Related Differences
Differences do not mean deficiencies
Overall: men and women more similar than different
Three main areas of gender differences
Personality
Cognitive abilities
Sexual attitudes and behaviors

6. Personality Differences
No significant differences between men and women have been found on most characteristics
Women tend to be more nurturant than men
Men tend to be more assertive than women

7. Cognitive Differences
No differences for most cognitive abilities
Verbal, reading, and writing—females consistently score higher
Spatial skills—males outscore females on mentally rotating objects, females score better on remembering locations of objects
Math Skills—males score slightly better than females but the average difference very small (Georgiou, 2007)

8. Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors
Reported differences between males and females in these areas have become less pronounced since the 1960s
Recent meta-analyses indicate that men tend to have more sexual partners, experience first intercourse at an earlier age, and masturbate more frequently than women.

9. Gender Role Development
Between ages 2-3 years, children can identify themselves and other children as boys or girls. The concept of gender or sex, however, is based more on outward characteristics such as clothing
Toddler girls tend to play more with dolls and ask for help more than boys
Toddler boys tend to play more with trucks and wagons, and tend to play more actively
After age 3 years we see consistent gender differences in preferred toys and activities

10. Social Learning Theory
Gender roles are acquired through the basic processes of learning, including reinforcement, punishment, and modeling

11. Some Definitions
Gender schema theory—the theory that gender-role development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity
Intersexed—condition in which a person’s biological sex is ambiguous, often combining aspects of both male and female anatomy and/or physiology.
Transgendered—condition in which a person’s psychological gender identity conflicts with his or her biological sex.
Transsexual—a transgendered person who undergoes surgery and hormone treatments to physically transform his or her body into the opposite sex.

12. Gender Schema Theory
An example of how a child forms a schema associated with gender. A girl is offered a choice of 4 toys to play with.
I am a girl
Toy car
Doll
Orange
Artichoke
Approach object
Who for?
Is it relevant to me?
Avoid/Forget
Assign to category and remember/
Approach
Not for me
For me
Boys
Girls

13. Human Sexuality
Sexuality both private and public. The human sexual response cycle was first mapped by sex research pioneers William Masters and Virginia Johnson during the 1950’s and 1960’s.

14. Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation—direction of a person's emotional and erotic attractions
Heterosexual—sexual attraction for the opposite sex
Homosexual—sexual attraction for the same sex
Gay—typically used to describe male homosexuals
Lesbian—typically used to describe female homosexuals
Bisexual—sexual attraction for both sexes

15. Determination of Sexual Orientation
Genetics—role suggested by twin and family studies
Brain structure—differences found in hypothalamus of homosexual and heterosexual men
Complex issue with no clear answers

16. Some General Findings
Sexual orientation is an early-emerging, ingrained aspect of the self that probably does not change
No consistent relationship between orientation and childhood experiences (e.g., parenting, abuse, sexual experience)
Controversial findings suggest a possible relationship among prenatal stress, androgens, and the development of brain systems that play a role in sexual attraction

17. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)
STD—any of several infectious diseases transmitted through sexual intercourse or other sexual contact
Of the 19 million cases of STDs diagnosed annually in the US, about half are among those aged 15 to 24
Many STDs have mild or no symptoms, yet left untreated can cause serious health problems

19. AIDS Epidemic
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome—caused by exchange of bodily fluids (blood, blood products, semen) containing the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks and weakens the immune system
HIV can stay in the body for many years without apparent symptoms
As the HIV attacks the immune system, the person becomes very susceptible to other opportunistic diseases (pneumonia, cancers)
Highest risk groups are gay men, IV drug users sharing needles, and people with multiple sex partners

20. Prevention and Treatment
There is currently no cure for AIDS, but it can be treated with complex “drug cocktails,” which improve quality and duration of life, but have many side effects and are extremely expensive
Prevention is possible using condoms, not engaging in other high risk behaviors such as sharing needles, and improved blood screening and infection control in health care settings.

21. ABCs of Preventing STDs
A=Abstinence
B=Be faithful
C=Condoms