1. Principles and Parameters (I)
Rajat Kumar Mohanty
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

2. X-bar theory and non-lexical Categories
Outline
X-bar theory and non-lexical Categories
X-bar structure of S
Spec-head Configuration
VP-internal Subject Hypothesis
Extended Projection Principle
Small Clause
X-bar structure of S`
[+Q]-CP Principle
Binary Branching and VP-shells

3. Levels of Representation in Universal Grammar (UG)
Lexicon
Theta roles
X-bar rules
Constrained by theta criterion
D(eep)-Structure
Move-alpha
S(urface)-Structure
Transformational rules LF
(logical form)
Constrained by EPP PF
(phonetic form)

4. Projection Principle
Representations at each syntactic level (i.e., LF, DS and SS) are projected from the lexicon, in that they observe the subcategorisation properties of lexical items.

5. X-bar Theory
It tells us how words are combined to make phrases and sentences.
It captures the commonality between different types of phrases, which PS-rules cannot.

6. (Intermediate projection)
X-bar Projection XP
(Maximal projection)
X `
(Intermediate projection) YP X
(Zero projection) ZP

7. X-bar Projection XP (X-phrase) YP (Specifier) X ` X (Head) ZP
(Complement)

8. X-bar Projection XP X ` YP (Specifier) X ` ZP (Adjunct) X (Head) ZP
(Complement)

9. X-bar Projection NP
N ` NP
John’s N PP
solution
to the problem

10. X-bar Projection NP N ` Det the N ` PP In the cabinet meeting N PP
discussion
of the cricket match

11. C(onstituent)-command
C-command is a structural relation among the terminal and non-terminal nodes in a syntactic tree
 c-commands  iff:
the first branching node dominating  also dominates 
 does not dominate  A B E C D F G

12. C-command NP Det N ` PP N ` P NP N PP P NP Det N ` N the of discussion
the cricket match
the N
meeting

13.  governs  iff Government  is a lexical head (or tensed I)
 C-commands 
No barrier (VP, NP, PP, AP, or tensed IP) intervenes between  and 

14. X-bar structure of S : IP
I(NFL(ECTION)) as the Head of S IP
( = S)
Spec(ifier)
I `
( = Aux) I VP NP
Tense : [+/- FINITE]
Φ-features: [PNG, case] … ……

15. Spec-Head Agreement
A head (X) and its specifies (Spec-X) must agree in relevant features IP NP
I `
Case: NOM
PNG: 3sg I VP
Case: NOM
PNG: 3sg … ……

16. VP-internal Subject Hypothesis
The external argument of a verb is generated within the VP. IP
( = S)
Spec
I ` … VP I
Tense
Φ-features …
Spec
V ` V NP NP … …

17. John likes his teacher. IP Spec I ` VP I NP V ` [Tense] [AGR] [+ EPP]… V NP
John
like
his teacher

18. Extended Projection Principle
There must be a subject in a clause.
Examples
John likes his teacher
*(There) is a unicorn in the garden

19. John likes his teacher. IP NP I ` Johni VP I NP V ` [Tense] [AGR]
[+ EPP] … V NP ti
like
his teacher
Movement rule

20. There is a unicorn in the garden.IP NP
I `
There VP I
Spec
V `
[Tense]
[AGR]
[+ EPP] …
Insertion rule
V ` PP V NP
in the garden be
a unicorn

21. John considers Bill to be incompetentIP
John considers Bill to be incompetent
I ` NP I VP
John
[Tense]
[AGR]
[+ EPP] … NP
V ` ti V IP
consider NP
I ` VP
Bill I
V ` NP To
[+EPP] ti V AP be
incompetent

22. Small Clause John considers Bill to be incompetent
*John considers Bill to incompetent
*John considers Bill be incompetent
John considers Bill incompetent
Small clause

23. John considers Bill incompetentIP
John considers Bill incompetent
I ` NP I VP
John NP
V `
[Tense]
[AGR]
[+ EPP] … ti V AP
consider NP
A `
N ` A N
Bill
incompetent

24. X-bar structure of S-bar : CP
C(omp(lementizer)) as the Head of S` CP
( = S` )
C `
Spec C IP
( = S ) ……
[+/- Q]

25. I think that John should leaveIP
I think that John should leave
I ` NP I VP
N ` NP
V ` N
+ EPP … V CP I
think
Spec
C ` ti IP C
[-Q]
John should leave
that

26. I want for John to leave IP I ` NP I VP N ` NP V ` N + EPP … V CP I
Spec
C ` ti IP C
[-Q]
John to leave
for

27. I wonder if John has leftIP
I wonder if John has left
I ` NP I VP
N ` NP
V ` N
+ EPP … V CP I
wonder
Spec
C ` ti IP C
[-Q]
John has left if

28. Who did Mary see? CP C ` Spec [+Q]-CP Principle: C IP [+ Q]
A [+Q]-CP must have a specifier NP
I ` NP
did I VP …
+EPP
Aux
Spec
V `
whoj
Maryi
NPi NP V tj
see

29. Binary Branching and VP-shells
A node can dominate at most two branches
John put the book *(on the shelf)
John put *(the book) on the shelf
Put: [V; _ NP PP]
S V (NP) (PP)

30. Head-to-head movement constraint
v P
VP-Shell
v `
spec v VP
V ` NP
light verb PP V
put
Head-to-head movement constraint
V-raising

31. v P v ` v IP John put the book on the shelf I ` NP N ` I N spec Tense
AGR
+EPP … v
John ti VP
V `
put NP PP V
the book
on the shelf ti

32. Summary
Projection Principle: Lexical information (such as theta roles) is syntactically represented at all levels of representation
X-bar Theory tells us how words are combined to make phrases and sentences.
The head of S is I(NFL(LECTION) and the head of S` is Comp(lementizer)
VP-internal Subject Hypothesis: The external argument of a verb is generated within the VP.
Extended Projection Principle (EPP): A clause must have a subject
[+Q]-CP Principle: A [+Q]-CP must have a specifier
Transformational rules can be
movement rules
insertion rules
Rules must be maximally constrained, otherwise they could produce anything (e.g., Head-to-head movement constraint, EPP, etc)

33. Sources and further readings
Comsky, Noam Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. CUP, Cambridge.
Comsky, Noam Lectures on Government and Binding. Foris, Dordrecht.
Ouhalla, Jamal Introducing Transformational grammar. Arnold, London.

34. THANK YOU