1. Theories of Development
Chapter 5
Theories of Development
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

2. Definition
A theory is a statement based on scientific research that helps to make observations and facts meaningful
Psychodynamic theories- focus on personality-trait development and psychological challenges at different ages
Behavioral-theories-designed to explain the development of specific behaviors and suggest their relationships to other developing social skills
Humanist theories-describe the influence of human experiences such as love and attachment on behavior and personality development
Cognitive theories-focus on advancement of the development of thinking
Sociocultural theories-describe how culture influences behavior

3. Importance of Understanding Developmental Theories
Changes in physiology, psychology, and behavior that occur normally at different stages in the lifespan.
Behaviors influenced by culture, environment, past experiences, family, health status, and the reaction of the individual
Understanding what affects growth and development helps predict and recognize behaviors.
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

4. Selected Theories of Development
Including theories by Freud, Jung, Erikson, Levinson, Piaget, Loevinger, Kegan, Vygotsky, Brofenbrenner, Maslow, Rogers, Watson, Pavlov and Skinner, Bandura and Mischel, Kohlberg, Cooley and Mead, Peck, Havighurst, and Atchley
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

5. Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)
Conflict occurs when society provides mixed messages, causing the unconscious (id) to produce anxiety, which rises to the surface (conscious or ego) and becomes evident to the individual in his or her feelings and behavior
Defense mechanisms protect the ego by hiding unpleasant feelings or memories from a person’s awareness and serve as a defense against anxiety
Oedipus complex-arises during the phallic stage of development and suggested that little boys compete with their fathers for the mother's love and attention
Electra anxiety-occurs when little girls compete with their mothers for the love and attention of their fathers
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

6. Defense Mechanisms for Coping
Rationalization-Developing a plausible excuse for unacceptable behavior
Repression– “Forgetting” an unpleasant experience
Projection– Attributing one's thoughts or feelings to another person
Displacement– Expressing feelings (often anger) one has about a person toward another innocent person
Reaction formation– Acting just the opposite of what one feels (e.g., acting sure of oneself when one is really feeling insecure)
Regression– Reverting to immature behavior
Identification – Joining a group so that its positive identity will be reflected on oneself
Sublimation– Rechanneling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable ones (e.g., channeling aggression into playing football)
See Box 5-1.

7. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
3 Interacting parts of a person: Id-present at birth and generates impulses that seek immediate pleasure and satisfaction; Ego-a view of self or image a person wants to convey to others; Superego-emerges between 3 and 5 years, delays immediate gratification for socially appropriate reason, it represents recognition of good and bad, known as moral guide or conscience
Oral-focuses on the mouth and need to suck-first year
Anal-focus is on learning self control of bowels-toddler
Phallic-attention is self centered-preschool age
Latency-learns to suppress sexual urges and focus on industry, achievement, and skills-school age
Genital-deals with sexual urges involving the opposite sex-puberty
See Table 5-1.

8. Psychodynamic Theory (Jung)
Believed roots of personality were a reflection of the past culture of the family; most known for describing personality traits.
Studied with Freud but did not believe sexuality was the basis of behavior development
Introvert-a quiet person who focuses inwardly on self
Extrovert-an outgoing person who focuses on others in the environment
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

9. Stages of the Life Cycle: A Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)
Personality development is dependent on the social environment and social interactions
Each stage involves a social crisis or task that must be positively resolved to pass successfully to the next stage
The stage of adulthood also proceeds through phases
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

10. Erikson’s Stages of the Life Cycle
See Table 5-2.

11. Stages of Parenting Behaviors
Erikson believed parents grow as their children
Stage 1: Parental image-Picturing oneself as a parent
Stage 2: Authority-Questioning parental skills as the child becomes autonomous
Stage 3: Integrative-Feeling responsible to motivate child as the child becomes more independent
Stage 4: Independent teen-Learning how to support teen while maintaining the authority role
Stage 5: Departure-Relating to the child as an adult as child prepares for the future and leaves home
See Table 5-3.

12. Psychosocial Theory (Levinson)
Elaborated on Erik Erikson's theories
Interactions among environment, culture, and the individual are the “fabric of life.”
Believed that each person enters an orderly sequence of events or structures in life
17 and 22 years of age-leaves the protection of family
22 to 45 years of age-height of vigor and vitality
45 to 65 years of age-transition phase
65 to 80 years of age-task is to define new goals and levels of involvement
Geriatric- involves the task of facing death

13. Cognitive Theory (Piaget)
Emphasized cognitive milestones in development
Four stages of development related to learning to understand and relate logically to the world
Information processing theory-information is input, is processed mentally, and is then followed by an output of judgment and decision making
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

14. Piaget’s Four Stages of Development
Cognitive Milestones
Sensorimotor
Birth to 2 years
Gains developmental understanding of object permanence. Understands cause and effect. Understands differences in time of day.
Preoperational
2 to 7 years
Attributes life to inanimate objects. Child believes he or she is the center of world. Sees only the obvious. Understands only one bit of information at a time without seeing abstract relationships. Develops language skills. Uses pretend play. Begins to use logic to understand rules.
Concrete operations
7 to 11 years
Can understand more than one piece of information simultaneously. Has a realistic understanding of the world. Focuses on the present, not the future.
Formal operations
Adolescent
Can think abstractly and understands symbols. Can think in hypothetical terms. Is future oriented. Understands scientific bases of theories. Cultural practices play a role in helping the adolescent understand “rules” and develop the moral sense of what is right.
See Table 5-4.

15. Cognitive Theory (Loevinger)
Stretched Piaget's model of development into the stages of adulthood
The ego adapts to demands and is an important basis for critical thinking
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

16. Constructive Theory (Kegan)
Constructive developmental theory similar to Piaget's
Lifelong interaction with the environment
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

17. Theory of Language and Culture (Vygotsky)
Social and cultural experiences are necessary for optimal growth and development
Language is a major force in the growth and development of the personality
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

18. Vygotsky’s Language and Development Theory
Infant-Cries and coos; Parents respond to cries by cuddling infant and provide toys to stimulate responses
Toddler-Points to objects-Adults give names and definitions to the objects the child points to
Preschool
3 years old-speaks to self during play or movement-Parents may or may not listen to all the words.
4 years old-Uses inner speech to guide behavior-Parents praise the child for demonstrating delayed gratification or self control
School age-Engages in speech and social interactions-Parents who listen to their child understand the child’s interpretation of events and experiences. Parents allow child to discover what he or she can do independently and with help of other.
See Table 5-5.

19. Social and Economic Influences (Bronfenbrenner)
Combination of social and economic factors that influence growth and development
How children may be treated differently in different environments and the effect that those differences may have
See Table 5-6.
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

20. Bronfenbrenner’s Social Theory of Growth and Development
Parents, siblings
Teachers, babysitters
School, neighborhood, community
Political community
See Table 5-6.
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

21. Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)
If basic needs are met, the individual can move to higher levels of thought and self-fulfillment.
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

22. Environmental Theory (Rogers)
People naturally form their own positive destiny, based on the concept of the self, if obstacles are removed
Believed that mastery of environment helped form the self concept and that a person has an idea of the type of person he or she would like to be.
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

23. Behaviorist Theory (Watson)
The father of behaviorism
The environment and experiences mold the personality
Theory based o Pavlov’s Conditioning of personality development and Skinner’s operant theory
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

24. Behaviorist Theory of Personality (Pavlov and Skinner)
Personality and behavior are learned
Pavlov-Classical conditioning-has to do with associating (pairing) things in the environment.
Skinner-Operant conditioning--Skinner attributed learning to the use of rewards or punishment for certain behaviors.
These theories are useful in health education, because positive reinforcement of learned information can result in positive health practices.
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

25. Social-Learning Theories of Personality (Bandura and Mischel)
Social learning formed the basis for personality development
Exposure to and imitation of a behavior
Children often imitate what they see
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

26. Theory of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
Moral reasoning
Development of a set of social rules that enables a person to differentiate right from wrong
Moral behavior is based on perception and integration of these rules
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

27. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Preconventional-Toddler-Obeys rules to avoid punishments.
Early Childhood-Seeks to avoid punishment.
Conventional-School age-Conforms to rules to gain recognition or reward.
Postconventional-Adolescent and adult-Follows rules that lead others to perceive person as “good.” Develops a sense of responsibility.
Moral behavior is generally considered to be learned.
See Table 5-7.
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

28. Development of Self-Image (Cooley and Mead)
Looking-glass self-a combination of imagining how we portray ourselves to others and imagining how others evaluate us to form a self concep
Self-image is formed through three steps
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

29. Development of Self-Image (Cooley and Mead) (cont.)
1) Imagining how we portray ourselves to others;
2) imagining how others evaluate us; and
3) combining these impressions to formulate a self concept or idea of what we are like.
See Figure 5-3.
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

30. Developmental Tasks of the Older Adult (Peck)
Coping with retirement from work
Adapting to the normal physiological decline because of aging
Facing the inevitability of death
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

31. Developmental Tasks of the Older Adult (Havighurst)
Developmental tasks of late adulthood, which involve accepting oneself and maintaining meaning in life
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

32. Developmental Stages of Retirement (Atchley)
Five developmental stages in the older adult related to retirement:
Preretirement-dreams of retirement
Honeymoon-enjoys freedom of retirement
Disenchantment-designs new priorities as a result of boredom
Stability-begins to feel needed and respected
Terminal-changes occur because of need for reemployment or decline of health
See Table 5-8.
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

33. Additional Influences on Growth and Development
Cultural beliefs and practices
Gender differences-affect development according to how the child is treated by others
Poverty-can decrease experiences available to the child, and it can also deprive the child of nutrition needed for brain and body development
Developmental tasks-be achieved and challenges to be met in each phase of development through the lifespan
Copyright © 2013, 2004 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.