Rise of Kingdoms, Crusades, and Papal Conflict

Rise of Kingdoms, Crusades, and Papal Conflict
High Middle Ages Rise of Kingdoms, Crusades, and Papal Conflict

The High Middle Ages (1000-1300)
Key developments: The wave of invasions stops. The Holy Roman Empire Germany is fragmented due to struggles between the kings and pope Reform and Conflict with the Church England and France develop strong monarchies The Crusades begin. Universities emerge. Political stability leads to economic growth and larger towns and cities. A period of political expansion and consolidation and intellectual flowering and synthesis. “full development of all the potentialities of medieval civilization.” Some even say that the creative endeavors during this period outweighed the Renaissance and the German Reformation! Borders of western Europe secured Intermittent Muslim aggression continued but fear of assault decreased By the late 11th-12th centuries Western Europe will become a feared as a power. The Crusades will act as a way for the kingdoms to trade and gain technological advancements. Monarchies emerged England and France adapted feudal principles of government to centralize their realms Parliaments and assemblies emerged to secure the rights and customs of the privilege many-the nobility, propertied townspeople and the clergy Foundations of modern states were laid HRE, was the great exception Except for the Saxon Dynasty under Otto I –III, the events in this period will leave it weakened until the 19th century. Catholic Church established itself as a spiritual authority independent of the monarchs in concept and law. Sowed the seeds for later separation of church and state. Much needed reforms Cluny Investiture 11 century-12th Split apart from being subservient to the German (Carolingian and Ottonian) kings Gregorian Church will emerge as nearly a monarchy in itself Some saw these reforms as the Church falling away from its spiritual mission

Early Kingdoms

The Reinvention of Western Europe Review
Europe reinvented itself in the wake of Carolingian collapse Major achievements: Growth of manorial society in France Crop yields doubled with agricultural innovations Trade with Islamic Mediterranean states enriched French Lords Manorial lords formed networks of Lords and Vassal, known as feudal bonds By the 11th C, these networks formed a new society based on land tenure AD Europe’s population began one of its longest periods of sustained growth. People bought more land under cultivation, introduced new crops, and made agriculture more efficient. Villages, towns, and cities grew in number and size. The tenth century saw the emergence of myriad local communities that were stable and creative. By the 12th century, Europe witnessed the re-emergence of centralizing monarchies in France, England, and Spain. Germany was the most powerful by 950 but was weakened by 1150.

European Settlement Review
500 BC ? Early Europe settled by Picts then settled by Celts (probably related to the Scythians) Rome conquered by 44 BC Germans conquer by 4th century AD 378 AD Rome allows the Germans to settle in Europe Rome sacked 410 AD Franks settle by 451; push Visigoths into Spain Muslim move in 711 AD -15th century Summary: Europe: Settled by Picts Settled by Celtic/Gaulish people –probably from Scythia Rome invaded beginning with J. Caesar 44 BC Germans begin to move into Europe around the 4th century. Goths (visi and ostro); Vandals Lombards; Huns The Celts had been Romanized but with the collapse of Rome and the split of the Empire, beginning with the Battle of Adrianople in AD 378 the Romans allowed the Germans, Visigoths, to begin to settle into Roman territory. They were pushed inwards by the incoming Huns. Eventually they sacked Rome in 410 and will settled into Spain. The Vandals settled into North Africa by 429. Lombards also moved into Italy by the early 5th century. The Franks moved into Gaul by 451 and pushed the Visigoths into Spain. The Visigoths live in Spain until around 711 when the Muslims invade. Spain will be ruled by the Muslims until the 15th century.

Review Franks Merovingian Dynasty 6th century- 751
Clovis: Charles Martel Pepin the Short Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor 800 843 AD Treaty of Verdun Three kingdoms will develop: France, Germany, Holy Roman Empire Merovingian Dynasty rules the Franks from 6th century until They were weak and ruled by Mayors. Charles Martel-gave his name to the Carolingians but it was his son who was the first King of the Franks: Pepin the Short. Pepin received the approval of the Pope and will give the pope the Papal States. Charlemagne, Pepin’s son, become the HRE. 843 with the Treaty of Verdun which divided the Frankish lands into three parts. King Louis the German receives the eastern portion (everything east of the River Rhine), called the Eastern Frankish Realm, which is the precursor to modern-day Germany. Emperor Lothair Ireceives the central portion (Low Countries, Alsace, Lorraine, Burgundy and the northern half of Italy), called the Central Frankish Realm. King Charles the Bald receives the western portion (everything west of the River Rhône), called the Western Frankish Realm, which later becomes modern-day France.

Holy Roman Empire/Germany
843 Treaty of Verdun Difficult time constructing boundaries in the Central Kingdom Lack of centralized control Dukes independent King was divinely appointed and the church aided him Prestige mattered most 919 Carolingians dynasty died out Elected Henry of Saxony as he was the most powerful warlord 950 most powerful state in Europe but by 1150 on brink of collapse Holy Roman Empire (central portion of the former Carolingian Empire; Low Countries, Alsace, Lorraine, Burgundy, northern Italy) Ruled by the Carolingians ; Charlemagne in 800 will crown himself HRE and rule over part of Italy Ottonian Dynasty 919 After the Treaty of Verdun in 843, Louis the German and his successors managed to preserve the East Frankish Kingdom and created the possibility of an independent German kingdom (the central kingdom). It had a difficult time creating territorial boundaries. The Rhine has sometimes been Germany’s river, sometimes its western boundary. No natural frontiers to the east. Slavic states resented German advances east. Several large duchies: Saxony, Franconia, Lorraine, Swabia, Bavaria. Formed by a people with distinctive historical traditions and many different backgrounds. Their leaders though were usually Frankish aristocrats appointed by the Carolingians. With the Magyars and Viking invasions, the Dukes became the destiny of the German people. In Germany, none of the dukes owed allegiance to the king. The Germans did not hold duchies as fiefs granted by the king unlike the other young kingdoms in France and eventually England. The German dukes had their own vassals. The church’s control helped balance out the lack of centralized control in Germany. The church recognized the divine appointment of the king and sought to aid him. Bishops were trained in the king’s royal chapel and then sent them out to various duchies in Germany. The king thus had indirect control over the appointment of bishops in Germany (simony). But he didn’t have any control over the nobility. Because they didn’t have much power, the Carolinian kings were keenly aware of prestige. Symbolic power substituted partially for the lack of centralize institution, taxes, and others things present with the Carolingians. The monarchy moved around a lot in order to consume the resources of various estates and display the grandeur of the king. Also, the Carolingians had made themselves kings of Italy but no one was really able to protect Rome. Even in 844 the popes had to defend Rome when the Muslims began to attack. 919: last legitimate Carolingian died and 919 the Dukes elected Henry of Saxony to be King. The first non-Frankish king of Germany. Greatest hope of dealing with the Viking threats in the north and the Magyar attack in the east. He was powerful and rich. He forcibly combined the duchies of Swabia, Bavaria, Saxony, Franconia, and Lotharingia. Secured imperial borders by stopping the Hungarians and Danes. The German kingdom Henry created was very strong in territory. Henry’s kingship was characterized by a certain leniency towards the German aristocracy. He respected the German nobles as his equals and always listened to their opinions and needs before making any decisions. Nevertheless, Henry proved to be a highly successful king since he, among other things, not only managed to stave off the Hungarians in 933, but also thwarted the last attempt of the Normans to invade the empire in 934. In the wake of his success, Henry made a decision that should shape the Eastern Frankish Realm* forever: breaking with Frankish traditions, he decided to make his oldest son his sole inheritor. This turned the empire into an indivisible unity which made the person of the king less important than the empire itself. However, it was not for the king to decide who should succeed him to the throne, but for the German nobility who had to elect the new king. Possibly based on the assumption “like father, like son,” it took the German nobles only five weeks to approve of Henry’s decision to make Otto of Saxony the new king. Thus, a long line of Saxon kings was established in the formerly Eastern Frankish Realm.

Holy Roman Empire Otto I 919-973
Reigned as “king” Nobles abandoned 952 Otto I pope crowned him as king of Germany and Italy Named counts and bishops in Italy, and raise taxes 955 Lechfeld-Otto the Great Divine approval 962 Crowned HRE Ottonian System Used the church as a way to unify and gain power Gave property and immunity to clergy in return for loyalty Church began to rebel against German authority under Otto I How did the interactions within the church reflect cultural developments of the time? How did the church continue to impact the lives of the people in Europe? Should Otto be called Great? What was the impact of the Ottonian Reforms? What factors prevented German consolidation during the High Middle Ages? Why did Germany remain in feudal chaos while France and England eventually coalesced into strong states? However, Otto proved to be a very different king than his father before him. This fact should have been obvious to everyone as soon as it became known that the new king was to be crowned in Aix-la-Chapelle* – Charlemagne’s* imperial palace*. For those who still refused to recognize that Otto had a very different understanding of what it meant to be king, his decision to wear traditional Frankish attire and to sit on Charlemagne’s throne on 7th August 936 should have been an unmistakable sign. Otto had in mind to become a very strong and undisputed ruler who would eventually follow in Charlemagne’s footsteps and be made emperor in Rome. Although the German nobles had publicly sworn their oath of loyalty to the new king, it did not take them long to abandon Otto. Afraid of the new king divesting them of their power, several nobles decided to depose him and sided with the members of the royal family who were understandably disgruntled at Henry’s decision not to divide his realm amongst his sons. It took Otto several years to put these various rebellions down. Ironically enough, it was the ever present threat of a Hungarian invasion that eventually helped the king put an end to the rebellions and to rally the German aristocracy behind him to save the empire. Otto I moved his own people into positions of power in Bavaria, Swabia and Franconia. Refused to recognize the duchies as independent and hereditary. In 951, he will invade Italy. He will be the first German King to be officially recognized as king of Italy in 952 and 10 years later the pope crowned him as emperor: got to name counts and bishops in Italy, to raise some taxes, and to keep south German nobles from meddling in Italy themselves. Otto gained immensely in prestige, throughout Germany and the rest of Europe. By 955, he won his most magnificent victory by defeating the Hungarian at Lechfeld. This secured German borders and further unified the German duchies. Earned Otto the title: “the Great.” His conquest was comparable with Charles Martel’s triumph over the Saracens at Poitiers in 732. Being firmly entrenched in a world that was characterized by the piety of its people, Otto’s contemporaries interpreted this victory as an unmistakable sign from God that he ultimately sanctioned Otto’s kingship. In order to make good use of this triumph, Otto had to find a way to rule over his realm and to keep the German nobility under control. His solution to this very problem was strikingly simple and is named after him: the Ottonian System*. Having learned that the nobility was unreliable in that the nobles put their own interest first and the interest of the king second, Otto had to look elsewhere to enforce his domestic policy. He eventually found a dependable ally in the Church. 962 Crowned HRE In 961, Otto rescued the current Pope, John XII, from an Italian enemy, and was crowned HRE. Otto proclaimed himself the protector of the papal states (first created under Pepin the Short). Pope John XII was the son of Alberic II, the ruler of the Roman nobles. Alberic was also the half-brother of Pope John XI and so Alberic used his influence to convince the Roman nobles to install his son as the next pope. As a result, when he was only about 17 years old, John became both pope and Princeps of the Romans so he wielded both political and religious power in Rome. The problem was that according to historical records, John was a disgraceful Pope. He was said to be a murderer, a gambler, to have had many mistresses, and to have blinded his confessor, Benedict. He was also accused of violating many religious rules like celebrating Mass without taking communion, failing to make the sign of the cross, and he allegedly ordained a deacon in a horse stable. Not surprisingly, Pope John XII made many enemies. Facing an invasion, John appealed to King Otto for help. Otto was a powerful king of the Germans. Much like Charlemagne, Otto saw himself as a protector of the Christian Church. Otto answered the call and invaded Italy in 961 C.E. Pope John’s enemies, fearing attack, retreated to their strongholds and Otto’s armies advanced to Rome. There, Pope John and King Otto formed an alliance. At first, everything went according to plan: the king and the pope signed the so-called Diploma Ottonianum. This document guaranteed that Otto would defend the pope against his enemies and granted the control of the Papal States* to the pope. In return, Pope John XII agreed that all future papal candidates would swear an oath of loyalty to the emperor and crowned Otto emperor on 2nd February 962, about 150 years after Pope Leo had crowned Charlemagne with the same title. . This date marks the official beginning of what is today known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation*. The new emperor stayed in Italy – the so-called Regnum Italicum* – until 965 to attempt to establish a firm rule over his new domains. In return Otto promised to support only John as Pope and to guarantee the protection of the Papal States. Otto continued to use the bishops and abbots to solidify his kingdom. The church was a solution to the lack of control that Otto had over his nobles. Otto knew that the clergy saw him as divinely appointed so he took advantage of this. He began to offer them land holdings and immunity from local counts and dukes and in return they became agents of the king. Because they couldn't marry, clergy couldn’t create hereditary property which made the vassal to the king very attractive. Two very obvious reasons made the Church the solution to the king’s domestic problems: The first was that church property located on a nobleman’s land was not automatically the latter’s property, but formed an independent property including the right to taxation and legal jurisdiction. So what the king did was to aggressively claim the proprietary rights over many churches and abbeys in order to turn these into politically reliable strongholds of the Crown. The second reason was that the monarch perceived himself as God’s representative on earth. This logically enabled him to appoint bishops and abbots without having to face any interference from the pope. As Otto had made the higher clergy his vassals, he consequently claimed the right to invest bishops and abbots with the spiritual and temporal symbols* of their offices This made them perfect for their role as royal supporters. In addition to that, Otto saw to it that his future bishops and abbots were not only reliable members of his family, but also groomed at his own court. With the establishment of the Ottonian System, Otto finally managed to impose a relatively secure rule over his kingdom. The church was becoming under royal control. Bishops and abbots were Otto’s appointees and the pope reigned only by the power of the emperor’s sword. Pope John XII recognized this a bit late and decided to join with Italians, Magyars and Byzantines against Otto. However, Otto’s forces intercepted the messages. This brought about Otto’s swift revenge. He returned to Rome and overthrew Pope John, making Pope Leo VIII the new pope. John took the papal treasury and fled to Tibur. A German synod proclaimed that no pope could take office without first swearing an oath of allegiance to eh emperor. Otto demanded that John return to Rome and explain his actions. John, in returned, threatened to excommunicate anyone who opposed him. He later returned to Rome with an army, forcing Pope Leo VIII to flee for his life. John reinstalled himself both as pope and ruler of Rome. However, he died soon after and was eventually replaced by Leo VIII. Despite the betrayal that occurred, an important connection had been made between the Christian Church and what became known as the Holy Roman Empire. Otto kept the title Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire would continue to rule in central Europe until the Napoleonic Wars in 1806. At this point in his life, Otto I seemed to have made all his dreams come true: he finally had control over the German nobility, he had revived the idea of the Western Roman Empire and had become its first emperor, and he ruled over a vast kingdom that stretched from the North Sea to the South of Italy. But his happiness was not yet complete, for all his achievements had not been acknowledged by the Eastern Roman Empire,* which claimed to be the sole legitimate descendant of the Ancient Roman Empire. Finally, in 972, Otto was also granted that wish: the Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimisces acknowledged Otto’s imperial title and agreed to a marriage between Otto’s son and his niece Theophanu. About a year later, on 7th May 973, Otto I died.

Ottonian Dynasty Otto II and Otto III Otto II Otto III
Began to focus more on Italy and less on ruling Germany By 1150 Germany lay on the brink of collapse Otto II France seized Lorraine 977 980 returned to Italy 983 died Otto III Visionary Rome center of administration The focus of the kingdom will shift from Germany to Italy with Otto II and III. As they focused more on ruling Italy and less on ruling Germany their German base began to disintegrate. In 950, Germany was the most powerful state in western Europe but by 1150 it lay on the brink of collapse. The dynasties were short lived and the monarchy’s alliance with the church helped only to precipitate the investiture controversy. The church by the 11th century will desire to have less control from the German Kings. The control of the king did offer an efficient counter weight to the aristocratic families which dominated the papacy now. France and Britain didn’t have these issues as they were able to give fiefs to vassals in return for loyalty. Although Otto I had made sure that his successor, his 17-year-old son Otto II, would not be overwhelmed by domestic difficulties when he succeeded him to the throne, it still took the young king seven years to settle the various conflicts he encountered. Most difficult was the rising antagonism between the monarch and his nobles, epitomized by the rather severe conflict that arose between Otto and Henry of Bavaria, also known as Henry the Quarrelsome*. In addition to that, Otto II had to secure the borders to France, since the French king had attempted to seize Lorraine in 977. Eventually, in 980, Otto II returned to Italy where he successfully reestablished the authority of the Ottonian emperors. He only failed to wrestle the South of Italy from the Saracens. Otto II died in Rome in the year 983 A. D. This meant that the Holy Roman Empire was in need of a new ruler in 983. But Otto’s son was only three years old when his father died and the German nobles made him king. This fact provided the German nobility with an opportunity to regain some of its former power and authority. Most noticeably, the dukes managed to make their dukedoms hereditary which became detrimental to the emperor’s domestic authority in the future. Once Otto III had become of age (in 994), he proved to be a visionary king and emperor since he wanted to re-establish the glory of Ancient Rome*. Thus, it is not surprising to learn that Otto made Rome the administrative centre of his empire in 998. Unfortunately, this highly intelligent and learned King died before he could realize all his ambitious dreams. He died in 1002 without having produced a male heir. Consequently, some troubles arose before the question of who should be crowned king was eventually solved. The nobility finally agreed on Henry of Bavaria, the great-grandson of Henry I. This new king became known as Henry (II) the Pious*.

Henry II Henry of Bavaria (Henry II)
Needed to secure borders Used Ottonian System Died 1024 and stabilized the Empire Henry II found himself entangled in various problems: Needed to secure borders there was chaos in Rome the borders of the empire in the east and the west were in danger. This forced the new king to abandon some of the more ambitious ideas of his predecessors and to focus on the “original German territories” of his realm. It took him 15 years to solve the problems and to re-establish a firm grip on the domestic policy of the realm. Henry achieved his aim by making extensive use of the Imperial Church System (Ottonian System). Since he had to accept that the dukedoms had in fact become hereditary, Henry placed his focus on bishoprics and monasteries. By bequeathing a lot of royal property to the Church, he made the bishops and abbots richer and more powerful. At the very same time he saw to it that all the future leading churchmen were educated and prepared for their duties at his very own chancellery. Of course, the King’s generosity was not entirely selfless. He expected the bishops to provide shelter for him and his entourage whenever he decided to honour them with his presence, as well as to supply the royal army with contingents of soldiers when they were needed. As we have seen, ruling a medieval kingdom was indeed a difficult business. Not having modern technology at his disposal, the king was forced to continuously journey through his realm. This meant that it was simply impossible for him to be in complete control of the empire. Thus, at any time given, the king had to rely on allies to see to his own interests when he himself was absent. It proved to be very difficult to find reliable and dependable allies that were willing to serve the king’s interests rather than their own. Since the dukes themselves were already too powerful to be fully trusted, the Ottonian kings turned to the Church. They had almost forged the state and the church into one indivisible entity. This Ottonian System worked rather smoothly until well into the 11th century. But what would happen if the Church no longer wanted to be a pawn in the king’s game.

Salian Dynasty 1024-1125 Salian Emperors
Clergy began to reject the control of the secular 1024 Henry III of Germany No longer needed to defend against invaders Turned to extend more power over the church When Henry II died in 1024, he had managed to stabilize the Empire, but he had not managed to produce a male heir. Thus, the line of “Ottonian” kings ended. Finally, it was the dynasty of the Salian Emperors ( ) that felt the power of the Church. Henry III lacked power in the north just as Saxons lacked power in the south. Henry III no longer had to worry about the Viking and Magyar invasions and he lacked power to control the other duchies so he began to expand control over the church. He’ll exile Gregory VI. In the 11th century, the Church began to feel uncomfortable about the issue of investiture by laymen. This feeling originated in Cluny*, the starting point of a monastic reform movement, which advocated a more austere, disciplined, and prayerful life within monasteries and convents. This gave rise to a new self-confidence within the Church and a growing awareness that the Church had to serve its own interests rather than those of the secular powers. The ensuing struggle came to a head under the reign of Henry IV ( ).

The Church: Reform and Conflict

The Church By the High Middle Ages the church was the largest landowner in western Europe. They also ran the majority of schools, hospitals and orphanages. The church occasionally came into conflict with political leaders. The church usually won these conflicts because it was able to: Excommunicate leaders it disapproved of (throwing them out of the church) Denying church services to ANYONE living in the ruler’s area (damning them to an eternity in Hell!). Growing concerns about corruption in the church (including the selling of Church titles by Monks for profit) led to sweeping reforms in this period.

Regular Clergy Monks: monasteries Spiritual elite Monastic vows
Served in charities Depended on the money of others in tithes and taxes Amassed fortunes in taxes Regular Regular was made of the orders of monks who lived according to rules separating them from the rest of the world. They were the spiritual elite among the clergy. Not lightly entered. A man had to be at least twenty one. Monks were required to perform manual labor and were forbidden to own property, leave the monastery, or become entangled in the concerns of society. Daily tasks were often carried out in silence. Monasteries in the Middle Ages were based on the rules set down by St. Benedict in the sixth century. The monks became known as Benedictines and took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience to their leaders. Monastic vows: poverty, chastity, obedience. Personal sacrifices and high religious ideals made them respected. Monks and nuns went to the monastery church eight times a day in a routine of worship that involved singing, chanting, and reciting prayers from the divine offices and from the service for Mass. The first office, “Matins,” began at 2 AM and the next seven followed at regular intervals, culminating in “Vespers” in the evening and “Compline” before the monks and nuns retired at night. The Crusades(pilgrimages) will allow laypeople the opportunity to participate in the life of prayer and suffering which they admired. Nuns did as well without a clerical rank. They weren’t completely cut off from the secular world however. They had frequent contact through charitable activities, tending the sick, poor houses, liberal arts instruction in schools, supplemental preachers and confessors in parish churches during Lent an do other peak religious seasons. Some will even rose to prominence as secretaries and private confessors to kings and queens. Taught peasants practical skill like carpentry, weaving, agriculture Taught nobles’ daughters needlework, herb use Sent missionaries throughout the world Scribes also copied classical and religious writings. Except for the parish priests, they will live on the labor of others. Income came form tithes and taxes. The church was a major landowner and regularly collected rents and fees. Monastic communities and high prelates amassed great fortunes. Granaries were always full in the monasteries. The potential loss of the right to present chosen clergy with the ring and staff of office was a direct threat to the emperor’s control of his realm. Consecrated relics and shrines and wrote and preached about the miracles of the saints. Monasteries and nunneries were safe havens for pilgrims and other travelers.

Secular Clergy Worked directly with laity Cardinals
Bishops: ruled over dioceses Urban and Parish Priests: local church leaders Court Clerks Secular clergy lived and worked directly with the laity saeculum. The formed a vast hierarchy. Cardinals Archbishops Bishops: many local churches together formed a diocese and the bishop controlled these; they will be granted money and land in return for loyalty in the feudal system-especially in Germany Urban priests Cathedral canons Court clerks Parish priests: performed sacraments, including matrimony; spiritual life of community; conducted church services Two groups of knights fit into the clergy’s examples Knight of St. John and the Knights of the temple St. John dedicated themselves to charitable works and care of the sick and defense of pilgrims to the Holy Land Templars protected the small states created by the Crusaders

Bishops Bishops, who were often wealthy and came from noble families, ruled over groups of parishes called dioceses. Many times, they were part of the feudal system and in exchange for a fief and peasants had to provide homage and military aid to a liege lord.

Parish Priests Parish priests, on the other hand, came from humbler backgrounds and often had little education. The village priest tended to the sick and indigent and, if he was able, taught Latin and the Bible to the youth of the village Lived among and were drawn from the peasant ranks. Fared hardly better than the peasants in Carolingian times. Lords had the right to raise chosen serfs to the post of parish priest and placed them in charge of the churches on the estates. Church law directed a lord to set this serf free but the lords were reluctant to do this and risk a possible challenge to their jurisdiction over the ecclesiastical property which was now given to the priest. They preferred a serf priest. One who continued to serve the lord during the week. Franks liked a docile parish clergy. The ordinary people found comfort and consolation in religion. Baptized children attended mass, learned the Lord's prayer and apostles creed and received last rites. The local priests weren’t educated and couldn’t instruct in the meaning of these doctrines. Street dramas were held in accordance with church calendars to educate the masses. Veneration of saints and relics was important. Virgin Mary was revered although a true cult didn’t develop until the 11th or 12th centuries. Religious devotion to saints was tied into the same ideas as the secular devotion and connection to the secular authorities. Both the saint and the lords were protectors and the serfs were bound to defend. Also had come connection with old tribal customs like witchcraft sorcery and ritual sacrifice of animals by monks. Charlemagne also shared many of the religious belief of his ordinary subjects. Collected and venerated relics, made pilgrimages to Rome, frequented the church of St. Mary in Aachen several time a day. After death, his money was spent to endow the masses and prayers for his departed soul. Not financially nor intellectually very far above the common people. The basic requirement was ability to say the mass. Until Gregorian reforms parish priests lived with women in a relationship like marriage and their concubines and children were accepted within communities they served. Because of their relative poverty, they would take second jobs as teachers, artisans, farmers. About 1.5% of the 14th century was clerical with one cleric for every 70 laypeople and even 1/50 in university towns-up to 10% of the population.

Corruption in the Church
Early Christianity traced lineage to Apostle Peter Influenced by the Ostrogoths, Byzantines, and Franks. East saw the church as part of the state and could be elected by emperors. West will break away from the authority of the Eastern and Western emperors

History of the Papacy Early until 493 Ostrogoth Popes 493-537
Gregory the Great Byzantium domination Frankish influence/control Noble Roman control How did the interactions within the church reflect cultural developments of the time? How did the church continue to impact the lives of the people in Europe? Early Christianity until 493 The popes of Rome trace their lineage back to the Apostle Peter. Constantine legalized Christianity 313 Theodosius made all other religions except Christianity illegal 395 St. Augustine Ostrogoths Popes from The bishops in Rome, never accepted the idea the Byzantine church should be an authority over both the east and west. In the 5th and 6th centuries, they developed for their own defense the weaponry of the doctrine of papal primacy. This doctrine raised the Roman pontiff to an unassailable supremacy within the church. He could make important secular claims which will lead to conflicts throughout the Middle Ages. Damasus I Pope Leo I St. Benedict Byzantium dominated from The emperors in the east looked at the church as little more than a department of the state. The emperors would involve themselves into church affairs and doctrinal disputes. They would enforce the conclusions of church councils. The Byzantine emperors dominated and popes required approval of the Byzantine Emperors. Gregory the Great: first pope to have universal authority like a true pope. There was famine an plague and a depopulated countryside after Justinian tried to conquer Italy from In 568, the Lombards conquered when Justinian removed his people. The Local elite held power and took away form other. The church now took on the role of the now defunct Senate. It could choose to help the powerful or help in civil matters. Gregory wanted to help the Christians helped fight local corruption. Had a vision of Michael and used that to give him divine authority to push back against the Lombards. The Lombards were Arianists. He couldn't make an alliance with the Lombards as it would interfere with the control that Byzantium had in Italy at Ravenna but created a peace treaty with them. Made a peace treaty with them causing the schism in the Orthodox and Rome grew wider. Protected against the ecumenical ideas of the East as this offended the equity of all bishops and ignored the primacy of St. Peter in Rome. Thought the Orthodox were setting the precedent of the antichrist. Charles Martel in His son Pepin will donate land as the Papal States. So the pope doesn’t have a lot of lands as revenue yet.) This was viewed as a declaration of war. Franks influenced In 756, Pepin the Short gave over land to pope Stephen II that he took form the Lombards. Renewed the so-called Donation of Constantine, which never had occurred in the first place and was only made up to support this territorial exchange. The king now had power The pope was becoming the person to approve of new kings and their authority. Pope now had a steady source of income and a strong ally In the 9th century, 16 popes ruled Rome in 50 years. Nicholas I or Nicholas the Great; believed that the pope should have suzerain authority over all Christian's in faith an morality. He refused to grant an annulment to Lothar, HRE and Rome would be sacked. Lothar, HRE died in 869 and was followed by his brother Louis II. Pope Adrian reigned from He had been previously married with a daughter and they would live with him in the Lateran Palace. In 868, both wife and daughter were murdered by a man who forcibly married his daughter. John XIII: first to be assassinated 882 probably by his clerics because he had little support from the Carolingians, drained the papal treasury, was conciliatory towards the Byzantine Empire, and failed to stop Islamic/Saracen raids; crowned two HRE, Charles II and III; without protection from the emperor the pope was at the mercy of increasingly powerful nobility. From , 1/3 of the popes died violently, sometimes killed by other popes. Others were so wicked that they were deposed and would flee to Rome. From , popes did a respectable job. Conflict with the East continues however, as the West refuses to recognize the clerical elections done under a man called Photius who was taken out of the office of the church in the east. The East continued to recognize his appointments however. 896 Formosus: was bishop under John XIII; he will e excommunicated due to political misunderstanding over the crowing of Charles II; continued the political wrangling's with the emperors in the HRE-he didn’t rust Guy of Spoleto III and forced Formosus to crown guy’s son, Lambert, as HRE, Formosus persuaded an army to march into northern Italy and free them from the control of Spoleto, Spoleto died and Formosus will crown Arnulf (general) but he’ll die as well ; He supported Charles the Simple in France to have the crown but a count of Paris, Odo, continued ruling; Stephan VI, ordered the corpse of he predecessor Formosus dug up to stand trial. Under the influence of Lambert and his mother; it will be call the Cadaver Synod, he’ll be clothed in his papal vestments and his measures and acts were annulled and orders conferred were invalid; the deceased had been unworthy of the pontificate. The papal vestments were torn from his body, the three fingers from his right hand he had used in blessings were cut off and the corpse was thrown into the Tiber (later to be retrieved by a monk). Powerful Roman Families The elections of the popes were becoming important events for the Romans much like the elections of emperors had been for the Pretorian guard. The power and splendor of the court was so irresistible that one pagan senator, Praetexatus said to the Pope Damasus: “ Make me a bishop of Rome, and I will be a Christian tomorrow.” In the first 2/3 of the 10th century, the papacy was given the name, Saeculum obsurum, or the Dark Age. Beginning with Pope Sergius III in 904 and lasting for 60 years until the death of Pope John XII in During this period they were influenced by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti as well as this families relatives. Protestants, into the 16th century, coined the terms pornocracy and the Rule of the Harlots to refer to this period. The Theopylacti family descended from a Theophylactus who was married to a woman named Theodora. They had a daughter named Marozia. Theodora and Marozia played a large role in the selection of popes during this time. Marozia became the concubine of Pope Sergius III when she was 15 (900)and she would later take on other lovers and husbands. She will have a child by Sergius who is Pope from She will influence the murder of the next pope after Sergius. Her mother Theodora will be sleeping with the bishop of Bologna and he’ll become Pope John X in Marozia is married to Alberic in 909, a German solider of fortune. They have Alberic II, in Alberic helped Theodora and Pope John X maintain power but Marozia will pressure him to eventually try to seize power for himself. He’s killed Marozia was forced to look on her husbands mutilated corpse but will seek revenge in 928 when her mother dies. She remarries again, Guy of Tuscany and has Pope X strangled to death. She picks the next two Pope and then in 931, her son become Pope John XI. She’ll now marry Hugo, king of Italy who was the half brother of her last husband Guy. Hugo was still married. John XI annulled the marriage and married his mom to Hugo. She’ll become empress of Italy but another one of her sons, Alberic, is a bit jealous and imprisons her and the pope for the rest of their lives John will die four years later in prison. Marozia would live in a dark cell in the papal fortress of Castel Sant’ Angelo until 937. Last Pope of the saeculum obscurum was John XII, ,the grandson of Marozia and Alberic. Came to the throne at 18. called the Christian Caligula. He father, Alberic II was the ruler of Rome. Turned the Lateran Palace into a brothel. Gambled with pilgrim’s offering and bestowed rich gifts including golden chalices from St. Peter’s on his endless succession of lovers. Women were warned away form the church lest they fell prey to the lusty young pope. Beranger, king of Italy did threaten the papal states and John will appeal to Otto of Saxony for help. John will crown Otto the protector of Rome which establishes the HRE at this point. Otto defeats Beranger and then chastises the pope for his behavior. John then gives the crown to Beranger to spite Otto. Otto heads back to Rome and John plunders the treasure of St. Peters’ and fled to Tivoli. Otto summoned a synod to sort it out. The charges were stunning against the Pope. Copulated with tons of women, including his father’s mistress, charged money for priestly ordinations, blinded his spiritual adviser, and castrated a cardinal. Otto writes a letter to John: “Everyone, clergy as well as laity, accuses you, Holiness, of homicide, perjury, sacrilege, incest with your relatives, including two of your sisters, and with having, like a pagan, invoked Jupiter, Venus, and other demons.” John wasn’t impressed. He told them they would be excommunicated. He was deposed. Otto put a new Pope, Leo VII. Otto couldn’t be around to protect Leo and the Romans didn’t like an emperor selecting the pope. John returned. He cut out the tongue and cut off the nose and fingers of one bishop; another was scourged, and a third has his hand hacked off. Most of the stories fro this time come from the histories of Liutprand, Bishop of Cremona. These sources were copied by another Catholic writer, Caesar Baronius, who was writing during the Counter Reformation and was highly sensitive to the corruption of the Church. (Catholics during the counter reformation were trying to salvage the Church after the protestants began to break with it and assert all types of corruption) Some historians believe that it is a mistake to promote even most of the popes during this time as corrupt. Many documents make it clear that many of the popes were competent administrators and diplomats. Some even tried to root out corruption.

Reinvention of the Church
Cluny Reform AD 910 Began in monasteries William the Pious, Cluny-purify the Church Peace and Truce of God decrees By 1049, Pope Leo IX enacted reforms Great Schism College of Cardinals selected popes 1059 Peasants contributed Out of fear of damnation Local Bishops also contributed How was the church transformed during this time? How do you account for its success? How important was the Cluny reform on the subsequent history of the medieval church? How did the interactions within the church reflect cultural developments of the time? How did the church continue to impact the lives of the people in Europe? The church found many supporters at the local level. The church was medieval society’s most democratic institution at this time. Anyone could rise to the position of pope, who was supposed to be elected by the people and the clergy. The church promised a better life for the ordinary people. Began in Monastery in Cluny: won support of secular lard and German kings. Allowed the church to challenge the king’s domination at both local and papal levels. Monasteries were the least secularized and most spiritual. Achievements widely admired, relics and ritual considered magical, and their high religious ideals and sacrifices were imitated by the laity. William the Pious, duke of Aquitaine, founded Cluny in Benedictine monastery. The monks there were determined to maintain a spiritual church. Rejected subservience of the clergy to the German kings. Pope was sole authority over the clergy. Said that no secular rulers should have control over monasteries. Protested against the secular clergy, particularly the parish priests, who might have concubines and claimed they were the same as marriage. Wanted to purify the church. The distinctive Western separation of church and state and the celibacy of the Catholic clergy both had their origin in the Cluny reform movement . They began to expand and control during the 10th century. And embraced almost 1500 cloisters. The peace of God and Truce of God decrees were influenced by this movement. Orders proclaiming that men must abstain from every form of violence and warfare during a certain part of each week (Wednesday night to Monday morning) and in all holy season. During the reign of Henry III, he deposed three popes who were pawns of the aristocratic families. He installed Pope Clement II who ruled for a year ( ). After Clément's death, Pope Leo IX ruled. He promoted regional synods to oppose simony and clerical marriage. Placed Cluniac’s in key administrative posts in Rome. More reform minded popes took over after the death of Henry II. After the Great Schism in 1054, when Pope Leo IX and the patriarch Michael Cerularius expelled each other from the church, the East and West split. Leo then spent time on the road then campaigning for people’s respect in Western Europe. Pope Stephen IX reigned without imperial approval. Otto I had signed his agreement with John XII, all popes would need to swear allegiance to him. In 1059, Pope Nicholas II decreed that the college of cardinals would now choose the pope so that the Catholic Church would be separate from secular interference. The College had the sole power to elect the next successor to Peter-created in the 8th century. It would evolve into a kind of senate for the church. The Church still follows this. Pope Nicholas II was also anti-simony and clerical concubinage. His successor Pope Alexander II was elected solely by the college of Cardinals but not without a struggle. Even though the popes desired more control over the church and the kings desired to continue to court power, the peasants were the primary catalyst force behind the desire to split off the political and spiritual control of the church. The peasants were at the mercy of the church for salvation of their souls. Reception of the sacraments depended upon validity appointed priests. Confusion over whether the pope/bishops had divine approval could commit souls to hell. They formed Peace of God assemblies. The Bishops who were living in the growing cities seized on the chance to enlarge their own prestige . They combined forces with the assemblies to purge the church of corruption. They convened regional councils, schedule and organize assemblies, arrange for large-scale public masses, commission speakers, issues calls for warlords to relinquish their strangleholds over their churches and to promote themselves as the leaders of church reform. The Bishops became the dominate force.

Reform Movement Cluny

The Reinvention of the Church
Reform movement insisted on the Church’s freedom---Libertas Ecclesie Lay Investiture European Warlords often placed their clients in ecclesiastic posts Simony Buying church positions Papal Supremacy: what powers did the pope now have? Need to have or should have? What limits would there be on his power. During the 10-11th centuries the HRE will begin to appoint clergy and the popes will be eager to reform the encroachment into their power in the church. Otto I began the Ottonian system. With the establishment of the Ottonian System, Otto finally managed to impose a relatively secure rule over his kingdom. Otto I knew that the clergy saw him as divinely appointed so he took advantage of this. Giving land to clergy in return for loyalty Any church land that was located in a nobleman’s jurisdiction was not automatically the noble’s property. It was independent and could be taxed so. The king began to claim the rights over these lands. He began to offer them land holdings and immunity from local counts and dukes and in return they became agents of the king. Because they couldn't marry, clergy couldn’t create hereditary property which made the vassal to the king very attractive. He now had vassals he could control. Royal training Otto began to train bishops in the king’s royal chapel and then sent them out to various duchies in Germany. The king thus had indirect control over the appointment of bishops in Germany. This logically enabled him to appoint bishops and abbots without having to face any interference from the pope. Higher clergy (bishops) made vassals He was able to invest them with the spiritual and temporal symbols* of their offices. This made them perfect for their role as royal supporters. In addition to that, Otto saw to it that his future bishops and abbots were not only reliable members of his family, but also groomed at his own court. Second half of the 11th century was filled with diplomatic, rhetorical and military wrangling between Rome and its rivals. The popes had lost any territorial control that they had had prior to the 10th century as the HR emperors used more clergy as vassals. They tried to regain control of the church and would use excommunication to do it. Two different reform movements would begin in the 11th century: Lay investiture: the kings/warlords choosing clergymen not the pope. Kings would reward followers with church positions. The individual warlords to raise funds plundered the monasteries. They would expel the clergy and replace them with those that they chose. By placing their clients into church positions the warlords secured a certain percentage of the churches annual revenues and would gain vassals he could control. If a clergyman followed the HRE and , the emperor would reward the clergy with fancy title, salaries, and prestige. The Popes, especially in regard to Germany, would try to outlaw this practice and regain control of the church. Simony: the buying and selling of church offices. The local peasants and bishops would attempt to rid this corruption from the church. A nobleman could sell a specific office and grant it and the title to the highest bidder. Papal - reform Conflict The German emperor Henry IV, facing rebellion from his nobles, pleads with Countess Matilda of Tuscany to help persuade Pope Gregory VII to end the rebellion. This image appears in an 11th-century manuscript of The Life of Matilda, Countess of Tuscany .

Pope Gregory VII Pope Gregory VII, though unpopular,
initiated many reforms for the church. These reforms became known as the Gregorian reforms. Pope Gregory Stated: The Church was founded by God Alone The pope alone can with right be called universal. The pope alone can depose or reinstate bishops The pope’s name alone can be spoken in churches The pope may depose of emperors The pope may be judged by no one The Roman Church has never erred; nor will it err to all eternity, the Scripture bearing witness. After Pope Alexander II, who was the first to be elected solely by the College of Cardinals, Cardinal Hildebrand or Pope Gregory VII was elected in Staunchest advocate of the primacy of the pope as the leader. A proud, brilliant, inflexible, self-righteous man who thought he understood perfectly well what was wrong with society of his day. Laymen were in control of too many church offices and rulers ought to defer to the pope. Gregory viewed that God had assigned leadership of the whole Christian world to the pope, and that kings, emperors, and ordinary officials existed only to do the bidding of the church, led by the pope. His ideas put him into conflict with Henry IV. A fierce advocate of the Cluny reforms. In 1075, Gregory embraced the arguments and condemned, under penalty of excommunication, lay investiture of clergy at any level. The kings would choose the clergy and then present them with the ring and staff which symbolized the office. Since the days of Charlemagne, emperors had routinely passed out bishoprics to favored clergy. Bishops, who received royal estates, were the emperor’s appointees and servant of the state. The Carolingians and Ottonians continued the practice. Church and state were intertwined. Gregorian Reforms: Improved the moral and educational caliber of the clergy by holding the priesthood to high standards of competence and also to high standards of conduct. He also demanded strict conformity to the standard religious services authorized by the church hierarchy and the use of Latin as the universal language of Christianity. Under Gregory VII the movements for clerical reform and centralization of authority within the church merged. Gregory viewd that God had assigned leadership of the whole Christian world to the pope, and that kings, emperors, and ordinary officals existed only to do the bidding of the church, led by the pope.

Gregory VII vs Henry IV Henry IV had little control over the nobles but controlled the church in Germany Pope Gregory challenges Henry IV’s authority and excommunicates him After pleading forgiveness, Henry continues to aggravates the Pope and eventually chases Gregory out of Rome and puts his own Pope in control The 1122 Concordat of Worms affirmed the Pope’s independence What was at stake for Pope Gregory VII and king Henry IV during their conflict? Was Voltaire correct in stating that the HRE was neither holy, nor Roman nor an Empire? How did the reform of monks lead to a reform of the wider Church and the creation of the medieval papacy? When Henry IV came of age, he controlled no duchies, faced a Saxony in open revolt, confronted bishops who had freed themselves of royal power, and had little idea of how the papacy would react to him. He squashed the revolt in Saxony and took back some control over the duchies and the church. This put him into conflict with the church. In 1075, Henry decided to make a display of his restored power by intervening in the selection of a bishop in Milan. Henry believed that he was king by descent from his ancestors and by the election of God and thus had a perfect right to supervise the church. However, the German kings had always ruled with the consent of the church. At least since Otto I the kings had also selected bishops and these bishops would become their vassals. Even Gregory VI had been driven into exile by Henry III. Gregory VII disagreed with the power of the HRE to appoint bishops in his lands. He exalted the papacy to levels it had never dared claim before. “The Roman Church has never erred, nor can it err until the end of time; the pope can be judged by no one, and the pope is, without question, a saint.” He apparently forgot about the deeds of the nefarious popes prior to him in the 10 century. “Who does not know that kings and rulers are sprung from men who are ignorant of God, who by pride, robbery, perfidy, murder, in a word, by almost every crime at the prompting of the devil, who is the prince of this world, have striven with blind cupidity and intolerable presumption, to dominate over their equals, that is over mankind?. Who can doubt that the priests of Christ are to be considered the fathers and masters of kings and princes and all the faithful?” Henry IV was worried that if his key administrators were no longer to be his own carefully chosen and sworn servants, then his kingdom might be in jeopardy. He assembled his German bishops at Worms January 1076 and had them proclaim their independence form Gregory. Gregory VII excommunicated him 1076 and released the bishops from their vassal ship. “On the part of God the omnipotent, I forbid Henry to govern the kingdom of Italy and Germany. I absolve all his subjects from every oath they have taken or may take; and I excommunicate every person who shall serve him as king.” Gregory encouraged the King’s enemies to rise up against him. Many churchmen and aristocrats abandoned Henry, because they were delighted with the chance to weaken the king and possibly gain a church office. Henry found himself facing a general revolt led by the duchy of Saxony. He had no recourse but to come to terms with Gregory. A meeting was arranged to investigate Henry’s fitness for office. To forestall the meeting, Henry left Germany and met Gregory at Canossa in Tuscany in January 25, 1077. The king was stripped of all his imperial insignia and ordered to remove his clothes and shoes as well. He stood shivering in the snow before the Pope’s castle in Tuscany. Henry, with a broom in one hand and a pair of shears in the other, was forced to prostrate himself before the pope and beg forgiveness. The broom and shears were symbols of his willingness to be whipped and shorn. He waited three days in the snow for the pope to show mercy. “Henry was the first prince to have the honor of feeling the sharp thrust of spiritual weapon” Machiavelli wrote. The Germans decided to elect a new king any way…Gregory said he would decide between the two rivals. After Gregory issued a definitive pronouncement against lay investiture, Henry’s propagandists unleashed a torrent of bitterly antipapal wiring, the first such campaign in European history, to discredit Gregory. Papal power will continue to rise and reach even greater heights during the papacy of Innocent III ) In 1080, after being excommunicated once more, Henry IV will go to Rome to chase Gregory out of the city. Gregory receives help from the local Normans who plunder the city. The locals then chase Gregory out of the city and exile him in He’ll die in exile a year later. (Gregory will be canonized in 1606) In 1084, Henry decides to put his own anti-pope, Clement III, on the throne-who promptly crowned Henry emperor/king. Even though it appeared as if the kings won, Henry will never recover his political power and Clement was never recognized by the Church. Gregory’s followers will regain power during the following pontificates of Victor III and Urban II. Henry V deposed his father who then died within a few months. The king realized that he needed to control the several duchies and the pope to be powerful. If any one of those props were kicked out the monarchy threatened to fall. Henry V struggled trying to bring the investiture controversy to an end. Concordat of Worms 1122 Henry V brought the issue to a close in Henry formally renounced his power to invest bishops with ring and staff. Reconfirmed the church’s right to appoint its own clergy and he surrendered investiture with ring and staff. However, the clergy appointments were to take place in the royal palace and the kings could bestow lands (fiefs) before and after the appointment. After the election the king could invest the new bishop with secular offices. It spelled the end of the German imperial church system and was a victory for the papacy. The clergy become more independent but not necessarily less worldly. Pope made himself strong by making imperial authority weak. In the end, those who profited most form the investiture controversy were the German princes! The German nobles began to elect only weak kings after 1125 and by the middle of the 12th century Germany was weak and disunited. The political aspirations of both parties continued to conflict over the next three hundred years into the 14th century. It would come to a head during another confrontation between King Philip IV of France and Pope Boniface VIII. The church now had a central government. Had ability to coerce secular rulers and control local churches. The canon law surpassed all other contemporary legal systems in sophistication.

Reinvention of the Church
Elections were still an issue Centuries of contested elections : 10 years the papacy was empty Cardinals wouldn’t show up and some left Rome over disagreements Papal court Lateran Councils Authority to rival the pope Powers Appoint clergy Excommunication, Interdicts and Forbidding of sacraments Inquisition begins 1231 Social ostracism was the key Church and Lay spheres began to separate Church continued to have issues in governance. The procedures to elect a pope were problematic. Even though the College of Cardinals determined that the popes would be selected from the group of cardinals but the number of votes necessary was undefined. So centuries of contested elections. the papacy was vacant for almost 10 years. And in 1305 the Papacy becomes the Avignon Papacy. Once no pope for three consecutive years. Groups of cardinal sometimes refused to show up and some left Rome if events proceeded in a direction they disliked. Popes had been cardinals and had long experience in the government of the church. Some were lawyers. Not one from this period has been canonized as a saint. Most were Roman, Italian or French. Most were noblemen. Presided over the Papal court compiled of cardinals who small legislative meetings. Could issue binding decrees. The cardinal headed the major branches of the papal administration and served as papal legates. By the 1200’s began to wear their “red hats”. These courts, curia, handled financial and judicial institutions. Money came from both papal lands in Italy and all over Europe and pilgrims. Began to hear appeals from lower courts in Europe thus extend more control through Europe. Lateran Councils: assemblies of bishops/cardinals which would meet to discuss church decrees. They began as an authority as important as the pope himself. Papal provisions: ability to appoint Bishops all over Europe rather locally appointed. Began to demand more fees Excommunication Forbid sacraments Interdict a decree that might be directed a person but more often fell on a region! It would half the sacraments in a region thus putting pressure on the person causing it. These were extreme because it would cause a lack of social interaction. Socially, politically, and economically disastrous. Ostracize the individual as church was a public affair. Gregory IX began to identify and punish heretics. Inquisitors would take testimony according to defined rules set by the Church. Church couldn’t enact corporal punishment so if a greater punishment was needed they would be handed over to a secular court. Execution for heresy were comparatively rare. Line between the lay and clergy began to grow immensely. Clergy couldn’t be secular lawyers or even doctors. Lay people weren’t allowed any right to preach to teach the Scriptures or stand in judgment of any offense that a cleric might commit. Any terms referring to the church referred to the clergy NOT the body of members.

Crusades

The Crusades (1096 – 1272) Origin
Jerusalem is a sacred city to Muslims, Christians and Jews. Although Jerusalem had been controlled by Arabs since the 600s the right of Christians to worship had been respected. In the early eleventh century Turks known as the Seljuk Turks seized Jerusalem and closed it to Christians. The Byzantine Emperor appealed to Pope Urban II to send Knights to take back the Holy Land. How did Islam continue to impact Europe in the Early Middle Ages and the Late Middle Ages? What were the aims of the Crusades and were they justified? What major developments in Europe encouraged the emergence of the Crusades? What were the aims of the Crusades? Aftermath of Justinian’s attempts to unite Europe ruled from Pushed the Ostrogoths out which allowed the Lombards to invade after Italy was devastated from the wars. Did conquer West Africa. After his death, the Persians will invade and the Slavs and Bulgars as well. Persian invade around 602 Heraclius comes to the throne Muhammad has revelations 610. Jerusalem falls 614. Hidrah (622) Persians defeated 628 (first year of Jihad) and Jerusalem is taken by the Christians. But the Arabs capture Jerusalem 636 under Umar Muslims and the Holy Land Persians captured the Holy Land and then the Byzantines took it back. 628 639-The Muslims took back control of Holy Land The Abbasids generally ignored Jerusalem and the Jews grew very poor. By the time the Christians got to the 10th century, feudalism was actually making Europe wealthy and Muslims began to trade with them. In 969, a Shi’ite Muslim from Tunisia conquered Egypt and Jerusalem. In 973, the Caliph Muizz was ruler of swathes of North Africa, Sicily, ,Egypt, Palestine and Syria. His successor will appoint a former Jew (convert to Islam) to a vizier position. They will begin to show tolerance to the Jews and Christians there. The Jews flourished in Egypt was were still very poor in Jerusalem. The constant conflicts between Cairo and Baghdad discouraged pilgrims. Even in 974, the Byzantine Emperor announced he was going to take over Jerusalem-never happened. Made it down to Damascus and Galilee. Christian pilgrims were becoming richer and more numerous than the ruling Muslims. Franks sailed from Europe and rich caravans arrived every Easter form Egypt. but the rights of Christian to worship was still respected. The caliph in Cairo paid a subsidy to the Academy of Jerusalem and the Jews won the right to buy a synagogue on the Mount of Lives, pray at the Golden Gate and gather close to Absalom's Pillar. Other rights as well. Even though they were poor they had more freedoms than under the Abbasids. This came to an end with the Seljuk Turks in The Turks overran the eastern provinces of the empire. Signaled the beginning of the end of the Byzantine empire. The actual end will come with the Ottoman Turks in the eastern emperor Alexius I Comnenus asked for western aid and it come in the form of the Crusade. Ironically, a 100 years later, the Crusaders would inflict more damage on Constantinople and Eastern Christendom than all previous non-Christian invaders had done! From Latin Europe tried to win it back from Muslim control. First wars that were formally sanctioned and blessed by the church. To take part in them was considered not only morally justifiable but also a positive spiritual action. These wars, the church proclaimed, pleased God and made one a better Christian. Soldier died was assured forgiveness of all his sins and eternal salvation. Church called for crusades, preached them from the pulpit, formally inducted their leading fighters, and arranged their financing. What the Cluny reforms were for the clergy the Crusades were to the laity: an outlet for the heightened religious zeal of the late eleventh and twelfth centuries, Europe’s most religious period before the Protestant Reformation.

Motives Motives: Persecution of Christians
Protection of Christians Pilgrims Push out Seljuk Turks Had conquered Anatolia and the emperor wanted it back Way to rid of excess testosterone Economic What were the aims of the Crusades? What evidence suggests that the Crusades were not a general war on Islam itself, or fight against all Arabs? Were the Crusades a Holy War? Motives The holy land was valuable long before it became holy. Huge trade area connecting the east and the west. It was connected both the European economy centered on the sea and the Asian economy of silk and spice routes. The Phoenicians and the Hittites fought over it as well as the Egyptian and the Sea Peoples, the Hebrews and the Canannites. And the Persia's and the Greeks. The Romans as well. The nobility recognized that fortunes were to be made in foreign wars. This was especially true of the younger sons of noblemen, who in an age of growing population and shrinking landed wealth, saw the Crusades as an opportunity to become landowners. Greed also played a role The Muslims controlled the Holy Land but still allowed Christian pilgrims to come through. Pilgrimages: Blessed by Muslims at first and Christians journeyed to the Holy Land to worship at the sites associated with Christ. As Islamic unity was shattered into many different ethnic groups, the willingness to tolerate the non-Muslim declined. As the majority of the population became Muslim the status of dhimmis wasn’t as important. Muslims were murdering pilgrims and closed Jerusalem to the Christians. Muslim armies had killed hundreds of thousands of Christian and Jews. It was at odds with dhimmi law however. Muslims began to focus on pilgrims traveling through their lands and harass them. Different groups made no secret that they wanted to crush Christians and Jews. In 1009, Egyptian ruler Al-Hakim demolished the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and ordered every church and synagogue in his realm destroyed. Christians across Europe were horrified. Until the Seljuk Turks took over. It was the Seljuk Turks who did the most to interrupt the passage of pilgrims. The Abbasids were hoping to used them against the Shi'i princes who wouldn’t listen to Bagdad. But the Turks had other ideas. In 1071, they spread throughout Anatolia. Peter the Hermit was discouraged when he visited Jerusalem and encouraged Pope Urban to war against the Turks. People’s Crusade In 1092, A Frenchman named Peter the Hermit took a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He saw the awful treatment of the pilgrims and the ruins of the Christian buildings. He reported back to the Pope. The pope gives a stirring speech in 1096 and the Crusaders leave. In a society that was based and structured on warfare, they had to figure out when war was acceptable and under what conditions. The pope, nobility and Western society had much to gain by removing large number of nobility temporarily from Europe. Too many idle, restless noble youths were spending a great part of their lives feuding with each other an draining other people’s land. The pope recognized that peace and tranquility might be gained at home by sending factious aristocrats abroad with their accoutrements of war (100,000 went with the First Crusade). Violence not acceptable to Christians but now condoned. The idea of a Crusade was copied from Jihad. Christian warfare was acceptable: just cause fought justly declared by a just authority The early crusades were inspired by genuine religious piety and carefully orchestrated by the revived papacy. The Turks had conquered Anatolia. The Emperor Alexius I Comnenus wrote to Pope Urban because he lacked manpower. Pope Urban seized the opportunity to assert his papal control. He guaranteed the protection of the property and wealth of anyone who joined the Christian cause to liberate the Holy Land from Muslims. Those that died in battle would be granted full remission of sins. In a 1095 sermon, he invoked the perceived mistreatment and harassment of Christian pilgrims. Plenary indulgences if they die in battle, complete remission of any temporal punishment for unrepentant mortal sin which would release tem from suffering in purgatory. It was also slightly romantic to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Weren’t there to defend Europe’s borders but to advance into the Holy Land. The Pope’s motivation for launching the crusades were complex: There was an obvious religious motivation. It also removed the warring knights from Western Europe and unleashed them on a foreign land (with the promise of land as a reward). It could unite the church in a time of great division. Both east and west. Result Cleansing of European Christendom which would intensify in the 13th century under Innocent III and his new orders, Dominicans and Franciscans. Jews would become the targets of pogroms as well.

First and Second First Crusade 1096-1099 Second 1147-1149
No kings involved Made to the Holy Land and only one to take it Second King Louis of France wanted to stop violence against Crusaders which held Holy Land territory First Crusade Wanted to rid the Holy Land of the Turks that had conquered Jerusalem. Military force not unified but consisted of several militias, each commanded by a different leader who was personally authorized by the pope. Tens of thousands of Crusaders gathered in France, Germany and Italy. Those in France joined with those from Italy in the northern part of the Baltic area. These groups would join with German at Constantinople itself. Arrived at different times and urged to continue Some fell into bandits and were killed. Others pillaged on the way there. The Hungarian people were plundered and pillaged by the crusaders. 50-60k fighting men. Women and children went too! They attacked Jews on the way. Crusaders marched to Constantinople, where they were given supplies and urged to continue. The convergence of all the crusaders on he Eastern Capital was a bit of a shock for the easterners. They already suspected the crusaders motives and the common people had been pillaged and suppress by them. This reinforced the idea that those in the West were hardly considered Christian brothers in a common cause. Battles No kings but the wealthiest nobility in Europe. They left all their wealth to go on this crusade. Either dedicated to the idea of remission of sins or dedicated to the cause of freeing the land from the Muslims. French and Flemish Took Nicaea in Antioch in 1098, Jerusalem in July 15, 1099 Asia Minor Turkish cavalry harassed them for month, picking off thousands of soldiers while avoiding pitched battle. They were surrounded at Dorylaeum they stood their ground and even the girls offered themselves as slaves rather than prisoners Half of the crusaders died crossing Asia Minor All their horses died on the way. In Antioch, the crusaders were trapped by a Turkish force. Laid siege for 8 months. Illness, disease and starvation. Their food was dogs, rats, seeds… Muslim army outnumbered crusaders 2:1. But the Muslims weren’t very united. An Armenian traitor allowed the Christians in, June 3, 1098. They became surrounded at Antioch after they took it. They tried to negotiate a truce. Muslims refused to let them surrender. Peter Bartholomew claimed to have a vision of the Holy Lance-the spear which pierced the side of Jesus. They found it buried in Antioch. Probably a piece of metal. It reinvigorated the passion of the men. They pushed the Muslims back. “Cult of the Holy Lance” created. The Crusader’s leader, Raymond of Toulouse, decided to stay and conquer Syria. The Crusaders were discouraged and they put Peter to Trial by Ordeal to prove the mission was still from God. He died and the Crusaders chose a new leader, Godfrey of Bouillon. Jerusalem 2 years, 2000 miles they arrived at Jerusalem. 2/3 Crusaders lost by death or desertion. By the time they took Jerusalem, Urban was dead and the crusaders felt betrayed by the Byzantine emperor (his troops retreated on a false report). The soldiers in the first one conquered the Holy Land in 1099 and carved four separate states out of it. Bulk of the populations were Muslims, Jews, and non-Latin Christians. Siege Jerusalem for 6 weeks. Fueled by three years of waiting. Pagans pierced, tortured by fire, part of bodies littered the streets. Jews and Muslims killed. Muslims fled to the Dome of the Rock. Wading through blood. Lasted two days. 70,000 people were massacred when Jerusalem was taken. Aftermath These states granted as much autonomy to the native groups with lenient rulers of the Crusaders! Thousands of Muslims and Jews migrated to the crusader states because they found life under the crusaders’ rule preferable to life under the warring Arab and Turkish warlords! The Crusaders claimed the lands they conquered. The warring nature of the Muslims in the East gave different perspectives to the First Crusade. The resistance to the crusaders’ control was found only in the immediate area. Christian conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 did cause an up-roar in Muslim communities outside of Palestine. Most Muslims sources never present the struggle for the Holy Land in terms of religious needs. Islamic world as a whole was more concerned with the arrival of the Turks and the approach of the Mongols Muslims even returned to Jerusalem as it was more peaceful under the new crusaders than the warring Islamic groups. Organized the land into Edessa, Antioch and Israel with a leading figure in Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon, leader of the French-German army (and his brother after him) ruled over Jerusalem. Tried to give a crown of Jerusalem to Godfrey de Bouillon but he declined. The Crusaders remained only small islands within a great sea of Muslims. They were now increasingly on the defensive. They were an occupying not a conquering army now. They had to fortify their position. They built castles throughout the Holy Land (ruins can be seen today). They ceased to live off the land and began to rely on import from home. They became international business people not warriors. They developed economic resources. Besides the papacy, many knights and lords who had established small kingdoms in and outside of Europe had gathered much wealth—donations, mortgaged land and church-entrusted property. News of this growing affluence spread throughout the Europe. Fabricated visions, dreams, miracles of papacy and their legates, and the epic stories of valour and courageous fighting of the knights had raised the Crusaders’ image as saints. The Knights-Templar became castle stewards and escorts of pilgrims going to and from the Holy Land. They gained much money and became important bankers and moneylenders. They won due to their superior military discipline and weaponry. It also helped that they descended on a politically divided and factious Islamic world. Swords had it seemed achieved much, and much yet remained for the Crusaders to win: Aleppo, Damascus, Alexandria, and the fertile Nile land of Egypt. Most written down event in the Middle Ages. Second Crusade ( ) Next half century the Christians keep Jerusalem form the attack until help was needed again. Around 1144, Edessa fell to the Islamic armies. Bernard of Clairvaux, Christendom’s most powerful monastic leader, preached a Second Crusade. It met with failure. This time the kings of Germany and France were involved. King Conrad of Germany and King Louis VII of France. Conrad was defeated Dorylaeum. They assembled 50k troops, the largest army seen yet, and decided to attack Damascus. They were defeated and the Muslim ruler, Nur al-din added Damascus to his growing empire.

Interlude and Third Crusade
Saladin Captures Jerusalem Third Richard the Lion Heart vs Saladin Muslims and Christians decided to share Jerusalem Interlude In October 1187, Saladin, king of Egypt and Syria, reconquered the city of Jerusalem. It’s nearly in the hands of the Muslims until modern times now (save for a brief time in the 13th century). Kurdish sultan of Egypt and Syria and founder of the Islamic Ayyubid dynasty. Greatest ruler of his age. Master of Egypt, Syria and Arabia. In 1187, Saladin began a campaign to get back all of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Defeats of the Crusader army inspired the Third Crusade. To resurrect another Crusade, a plot was rigged that Pope Urban III had died of grief over loss of the Holy City. This however, contradicts the facts as historian Archer wrote, “Urban died on October 20, 1187, before the fall of Jerusalem could have been known in Europe”. Therefore, Pope Gregory VII initiated a new Crusade in 1187 by issuing Audita tremendi—a crusading bull, imposing a seven-year truce throughout Europe so that rulers could concentrate on the Crusades. Moreover, Gregory lamented the loss of the True Cross, alleged the execution of Christian inhabitants, and claimed that God’s anger at the sins of man could be assuaged by an act of penance, namely, the recovery of Christ’s patrimony - Jerusalem. Conrad of Montferrat had landed at Tyre in August 1187 just as Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn’s army was sweeping through the Latin States in the aftermath of his great victory at the Battle of Hittin - the decisive battle on 4 July 1187 that showed the superior strength and organisation of his armies. It was Conrad’s force that proved crucial in the survival of the Frankish East. Conrad had sent a banner that depicted atrocities committed by Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn’s men to be displayed at preaching meetings in the West. Third Crusade Less disastrous than the second but nothing like the first. 40 years after the second. Led by King Richard the Lion Heart of England, Philip Augustus of France, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany (died shortly) Germans Barbarossa, King of Germany 1152 and HRE 1155 Frederic Barbarossa, the Emperor of Germany, was the first to mobilise his army from Germany on May 11, He was accompanied by his son, Duke Frederick of Swabia, and the massive crusading army, undoubtedly one of the largest yet to leave Europe. Frederick however, had many problems on his expedition as soon as he entered Byzantine territory. Isaac II, the Byzantine Emperor, had entered a truce with Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn, and he did not help the progress of Frederick’s army. When Frederick and his army suffered severely from hunger, thirst and ambushes, he warned Isaac of dire consequences if he would not provide them free passage across the Bosporus. Finally, after negotiations, Isaac agreed on condition that Frederick would facilitate surrender of the captured city of Adrianople in Thrace to Isaac II. In April 1190, the Germans entered Turkish lands. As a crusading veteran, Emperor Frederick defeated the Turkish forces of Kilij Arslān II. However, on June 10, 1190, Frederick Barbarossa drowned in the River Salef near Antioch while taking a bath. The Duke of Swabia took charge of the army, but without a powerful figure, the will of the crusading army evaporated. Most sailed home; only a few continued their march to the Levant. Barbarossa, never made it on the Crusade. But died accidently while crossing the Saleph River. Legends says he lies asleep in the Salzburg hills and when raven cease to fly ‘round the mountain he will awake and bring to his old country the dawn of a golden age. England and France Richard He grew up in France and only spent 6 months in England. Since age eight he spent his young years in Aquitaine. He spent most of his reign in the Crusade and in France. Remarking that he’d sell the island if he could find a buyer. Didn’t speak English-most of the nobles spoke French during this time and English was the common tongue. Wouldn’t’ be come popular until the 13th century under Edward… His body was buried at the feet of his father (who he felt guilty for disrespecting during his life), his heart in France, and his entrails at the site of his death. He died in his mother’s arms. Richard sailed in 1191 from Sicily. He conquered the island of Cyprus and married a woman while there. King Richard of England and King Philip of France made slow progress on their journey to the East. At a meeting in July 1190, they agreed to share equally the spoils of the conquests and then marched southwards to the coast of France. Unlike Barbarossa, they decided to travel east by sea. Philip led his army to Genoa. Richard marched to Marseilles. The two kings joined their fleets at Messina in Sicily where they spent winter. Richard attacked the city but Philip refused to take part resulting in frosty relations between the two kings. On March 30, 1191, Philip and his fleet left Sicily for Acre and arrived on April 20. Richard’s fleet set sail for Acre on 10 April but as they passed Cyprus, a storm blew up and scattered his fleet. Then on landing and being poorly treated by the inhabitants while his fiancée was also trapped on her ship, Richard attacked and seized Cyprus. He gained much wealth and provisions from Cyprus for the march to the East. After invading Cyprus, Richard departed and joined his ally Philip Augustus at the siege of Acre on June 8, 1191. Richard first went to Acre, a town on the coast of Syria and found other crusaders besieging it. The siege had lasted for nearly two years before the kings joined. The Crusaders eventually conquered Acre. “For joy at his coming”, says Bahā al-Dīn, “the Franks broke forth into public rejoicing, and lit mighty fires in their camps all night long. And seeing that the King of England was old in war and wise in council.” After four days of the first ever pitched battle between Richard’s and Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn’s armies, on 12 June the Turkish garrison surrendered to the Franks. It was agreed that in return for the lives of the Muslim garrison, Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn would return the True Cross, release Christian prisoners, and provide 200,000 dinars. However, when Richard saw that Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn delayed in carrying out the treaty terms he broke his word - Richard’s army gathered the more than three thousand Muslim prisoners along with their women and children in chains and slaughtered them in cold blood. In this manner Richard “revealed the secret thought that he was nurturing, and put it into effect even after he had received the money and the (Frankish) prisoners” (The weaponry of the Muslims was superior to that of the Crusaders?) Richard then marched to Arsuf, Sept 1191, which was the only true battle of the Third Crusade. He defeated Saladin’s forces there. The French and Germans began to plot against Richard. The French left and the German king was killed. They left Richard on his own. By the end of the month, Philip had returned to France and Richard took command of the entire Crusade and decided to march south to Jaffa along the sea coast as Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn controlled the whole countryside. Richard displayed excellent military skills when he ordered the weak to march along the shores, the infantry and cavalry farther inland, and the archers, crossbowmen and spearmen positioned on the outside of the column. Marching in the hot summer and harassed by Muslim forces, the crusaders reached just north of Arsūf where Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn had already reached to confront Richard. On September 7, Ṣalaḥ alDīn’s forces engaged the Franks in battle but Richard playing brilliantly defeated the Turkish forces and headed on to Jaffa. Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn however, destroyed the city’s fortification and withdrew his forces to Ascalon. Richard captured Jaffa on 10 September and started rebuilding the Jaffa walls. Richard probably wanted to secure Ascalon as a priority, but the bulk of his army wished to press on to Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Richard initiated negotiations and proffered a truce. Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn dismantled Ascalon too because he knew the intentions of Richard who first wanted to consolidate and hold a strong port that could provision their planned onslaught on Jerusalem. Although, Richard favoured garrisoning Ascalon and rebuilding its defence, the crusading majority remained steadfast in wishing to march to Jerusalem. In January 1192, Richard’s army reached Bayt Nuba, just twelve miles from Jerusalem, but bad weather and the city’s strong defensive walls compelled them to retreat back to Ascalon lest it fall to Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn. Meanwhile, as events in the West were pressing upon Richard, the endless disunity in the army was another problem. The native barons favoured and demanded Conrad’s election as king. Richard acquiesced and compensated Guy of Lusignan (d. 1194), the son of Hugh VIII of Lusignan, by making him ruler of Cyprus. However, the situation worsened when Conrad was assassinated; some suspected Richards’ involvement but he made Henry of Champagne to succeed as the new king thus dampening the factional divisions. On 27 July 1192, Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn marched and tried to recapture Jaffa. After a fierce battle, Richards’s troops found safety in Jaffa. Sensing difficulty to achieve anything worthwhile in Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn’s lands, Richard tried hard to reach a truce with him, but failed. For Richard, conquering Jerusalem would not solve the problem of the Holy Land. He thought that even if it had been liberated in isolation, it would soon be retaken by the Muslims when the Crusaders returned home. Instead, he urged his fellow crusaders to consider an attack on Egypt. Many crusaders were disgusted with Richard’s diversion of motive from Jerusalem. The failure of the two attacks on Jerusalem doomed the old concept of a pell-mell attack on Jerusalem. Therefore, Richard resumed negotiations with Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn following his bitter conclusion that while Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn remained Sultān of Egypt, the Christians could never take and hold Jerusalem. Finally, on 2 September 1192, a formal three-year peace agreement was agreed between the Christians and Muslims. It was agreed that the Christians would hold the coast as far south as Jaffa, but Ascalon was surrendered to the Muslims. Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn agreed to keep the road open to Jerusalem for Christian pilgrims. On October 9, 1192, Richard sailed home to curb his ambitious brother, Count John. The third Crusade was thus ended. Truce vanished when Saladin died a few months later. Consequences of the third Crusade The Third Crusade only preserved a remnant of crusader-occupied Levant along the Mediterranean coast. • The Muslim position became much stronger, holding cities and fortresses, which had previously been held by the old Christian kingdom. • It was manifested that the Crusader leaders although vowed to recapture Jerusalem, implicitly wanted to establish their own kingdoms and amass riches in the East. • Hostility between the Greeks and the Latins reached a climax as was manifested during the Fourth Crusade. • The crusading spirit in Christian Europe was shattered; the West mobilised subsequent Crusades but aimed primarily not for the Levant. • Trade and cultural exchanges were also fostered between the Franks and Muslims Interlude between 3rd and 4th Philip returned and began to wage war on Richard’s continental territories. On his way back, Richard was ship wrecked on the coast of Venice and disguised as a pilgrim wandered around the enemy territory of Austria. Henry VI suspected Richard of plotting against him with Henry's mortal enemy, Henry the Lion, the duke of Saxony. Henry happened to be Richard’s brother-in-law. He was discovered and imprisoned into a castle. Richard’s faithful minstrel was sent out and found him when he heard the imprisoned king singing. Richard had his minstrel plunder the English kingdom to secure his release. So many taxes were levied on the people, including the nobles, that it would lead to a revolt culminating in the Magna Carta later. When news of Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn’s death and the division of the empire among his three sons reached Europe, the then Pope Innocent III ( ) began preparations for a new Crusade. On 15 August 1198, he issued a crusading bull, but he was not able to convince and recruit any kings - even Richard and Philip refused to take the Cross again - as political conditions in Europe were not auspicious for this Crusade. King Richard was killed after being hit by a crossbow in 1199, and his successor was too preoccupied fighting Philip Augustus of France

Fourth Crusade and Children’s Crusade
Crusaders attacked Zara, Christian city Crusaders attacked Constantinople Children’s Crusade 1212 Thousands of children marched to their death There were far more Crusades in the thirteenth century and these were sent to various places even in Europe. Fourth Crusade Pope Innocent III called from another Crusade in 1198. In 1202, about 30k Crusaders arrived in Venice to set sail for Egypt. When they couldn’t arrange the fees to pay, the Venetians suggested that they attack a rival Christian port city of Zara. The Crusaders agreed. This allowed Venice to gain new lands and maritime rights which assured its domination of the eastern Mediterranean. The Crusaders also made a diversion to Constantinople to topple the reigning Byzantine emperor, Alexius III, in favor of his nephew, who became Alexius IV in mid The New emperor was willing to submit to the pope. The people in Byzantium didn’t agree with this new emperor and he was strangled in a palace coup in 1204. The Crusaders then declared war on Constantinople. They looted, pillaged and destroyed many things and nearly destroyed the whole city. signaled by the sacking of Constantinople and Santa Sophia was destroyed. Tombs of emperors were desecrated, relics stolen, women an nuns raped and murdered. Rome’s point of view: the East had it coming since they split. Doge Dandolo from Italy led his countrymen to attack and seize Constantinople. From the days of Constantine treasure had been collected from all parts of the world and stored here. Had been the seat of learning for centuries. Now all was swept away: marble, pictures, statues, prizes from Egypt, Greece, and Rome. The bronze horse from Constantinople are still in Venice. Actually seized Constantinople! And held it for 70 years Constantinople now became the center for Western trade connecting it to the east. The pope shared in the spoils. Western Church had unique opportunity to extend its presence into the East. Some they launched missions to win over the Greeks and Slavs to the Roman Church. This control continued until 1261 when Michael Paleologus, helped by the Genoese who envied Venetia prosperity, helped Paleologus capture the city. Quite hurt east-west relations. Consequences of the 4th Crusade • The Fourth Crusade resulted in a bitter sense of antagonism between the orthodox Greeks and catholic Latin’s that lives on today. • It betrayed its goal of capturing the Holy Land and instead attacked fellow Christians, first against the Latin city of Zara and secondly against Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, and the biggest, wealthiest and most cultured city in Christendom. • It provided a free hand to crusaders who had personal motives to secure abundant riches. • It made the Greeks appreciate the Muslim code of conduct of war. • It again reflected the crusaders’ lack of organisation and discipline essential for any successful campaign The Children’s Crusade took place in 1212. Although it was called the Children’s Crusade, most historians don’t regard it as an actual crusade, and many experts question whether the group was really comprised of children. The movement never reached the Holy Land. In two different movements, thousands of children set out to free Jerusalem. One group in France was led by 12-year-old French shepherd boy, Stephen of Cloyes. An estimated 30,000 children under 18 joined him. They were armed only with the belief that God would give them Jerusalem. On their march south to the Mediterranean, many died from cold and starvation. The rest drowned at sea or were forced to into slavery. Some fell victim to disreputable merchants before they ever left France. They were shipped off to slave markets in North Africa. In Germany, Nicholas of Cologne gathered about 20,000 children and young adults. They began marching toward Rome. Thousands died in the cold and treacherous crossing of the Alps. Those who survived the trip to Italy finally did meet the pope Innocent III. He told them to go home and wait until they were older. About 2,000 survived the return trip to Germany. A few boarded a ship for the Holy Land and were never heard of again.

Pope Innocent III Master of Christendom
Entangled with English King John over Magna Charta New Papal Monarchy Innocent III continued the ideas of Gregory VII. He practiced like no one before him the idea of the plenitude of papal power. Likened the church to the sun and the kings to the moon. As the moon receives light from the sun, so does the king received power (crown) from the Church. Declared himself to be the master of Christendom but ruler of the world. His ability to actually carry this out was limited but he did to some extent. He forbid the annulment of the marriage of Philip II, king of France. Placed all of France under and interdict-all sacraments save baptism and last rites were forbidden. Told St. Francis of Assisi to go root along in a pig pen with his fellow swine. King John was excommunicated when he appointed the archbishop of Canterbury and put England under an interdict that lasted more than 6 years. Churches were shut down, babies weren’t baptized, dead were buried without ceremony, and people couldn’t get sacraments. King John just took over the Church property for himself and the revenue. Except, King Philip II of France prepared an invasion with the pope’s encouragement. So John had to submit to the pope. He signed a document in 1213 handing over his kingdom “to God and to our Lord Pope Innocent and his Catholic successors.” made him a vassal and had to pay annual rent. However, John later, when forced to sign the Magna Carta, the Pope was furious. The English barons were interfering with the Pope’s kingdom. “By St. Peter, we cannot pass over this insult without punishing it,”…the Magna Carta was “contrary to moral law.” The king, should be answerable only to the pope. “From the plentitude of his unlimited power an authority, which God has committed him to bind and destroy kingdoms, to plant an uproot,” Innocent thus annulled the Magna Carta and absolved the king from following it. He warned that excommunication awaited “anyone who should continue to maintain such treasonable and iniquitous pretensions.” New Papal Monarchy Made the papacy a great secular power, with financial resources and a bureaucracy equal to those of contemporary monarchs. During his “reforms” the papacy transformed itself into an eccleiso-commercial entity. It would later be reformed again. Employed Lombard merchants and bankers to collect the new papal revenues Consolidated and expanded church taxes on laity. Income tax of 2.5% on the clergy. Annates: payment of a portion or ALL of the revenue of a clergy’s first year reception of a benefice Those who desired absolution of sins and religious crimes had to petition the pope now. Other clergy were forbidden.

Innocent III and Heresy
Crusades against heretics Fourth Lateran Council Started the Inquisition Crusades against heresy Disappointed by the Fourth Crusade’s failure, Pope Innocent III set in train major reforms that culminated in the holding of the Fourth Lateral Council in 1215 to deal with Church reforms and the new planned Crusade. In addition, he widened the scope of crusading by launching the Albigensian Crusade against the heretics of southern France in 1204 Heresy had frown under the influence of local reform movements that tried, to disassociate the church from the growing materialism of the age and keep it pure of political scheming. Stemmed also from anticlericalism which was fed by real abuses of the clergy and was witnessed by the laity such as greed, immorality and poor pastoral service. Crusade against the Cathars or Albigenses in 1209. Section in the southeast corner of France but also had some adherents in Spain and Italy. The Cathars were a throw back to the gnostic doctrine of the separate evil and good creations. Two separate and equal gods: one good and one evil. Humans were condemned to be trapped between the cosmic war between them. They were condemned to a cycle of reincarnation. The universe was the creation of the evil deity but our souls were created by the good god. Struggle between materialism and spiritualism. A duality…Plato… Once we have achieved the appropriate spiritual state we break the cycle of reincarnation and our souls are released form our bodes in a spiritual exaltation which tips the universe in favor of the universal good. Opposed Old testament God of wrath, incarnation of Jesus Christ. They saw the church as a spiritual entity and not one to be tangled up in the secular world. They believed in the separation of spiritual and earthly. All material things were somehow trained. Some opposed procreation because human bodies were evil and tainted. It was during this time that the Church developed its social teachings on abortion and contraception. However, the teachings against abortion can be traced back to the didache, fist century AD-the oldest catechism in existence. The French government was trying to unify the kingdom and were standing in the way-own government, own language. Simon de Montfort was a leader in the crusades against the people. They were not just interested in stamping out heresy but also in the wealth of the area of Languedoc. Succession of massacred and ended with a special Crusade led by King Louis VIII of France from 1225=1226 which destroyed the Albigenses as a political entity. Innocent hated them and wanted them eradicated. “Death to heretics” and offered the same indulgences crusaders were promised for fighting Muslims. The Papal army first attacked the town of Beziers, a Cathar stronghold. Catholics there had been warned to hand over nay heretics lest they be killed, too. Many resisted and too their Cathar brethren into the age-old sanctuary of the church. The command was given to kill them anyway. Inside the church of Mary Magdalene, thousands of Catholics and Cathars huddled together as their town was destroyed outside. Soon the doors were smashed and the army killed all inside, even the two priests saying mass. The papal legate on the slaughter: “ Today, Your Highness, twenty thousand citizens were put to the sword, regardless of age or sex.” Innocent rejoice and called for more. In the town of Bram, the noses of Cathars war chopped off and their eyes cut out. One of them was allowed to keep an eye to lead the blinded and bloody to Cabaret to serve as a warning to the people there. In Minerve, 140 Cathar’s were led into a meadow to be cast onto a pyre. Burning of heretics had begun. Fourth Lateran Council Met in 1215 to formalize church discipline in the clergy. Full sanction to transubstantiation Influence of the Cluniac monks and the Cistercians These orders made the adoration of the Virgin Mary (patron saint of the Cistercians) and the worship of Christ and Eucharist the centerpieces of doctrine in the Church. Annual confession and Easter communion mandatory for every adult Christian. Formalized the sacrament of penance as the church’s key instrument of religious education and discipline in the later Middle Ages Inquisition Pope Gregory IX introduced in 1227 to complete the work of the Crusaders. The inquisition began as a pedagogical program to country heresy. Determine what an individual or group actually believed and then demonstrate its errors. A formal tribunal for the detection and punishment of heresy. Been in use since the mid-12th century as a way for bishops to maintain diocesan discipline. Now it was central in the papacy. Church couldn’t enact corporal punishment so if a greater punishment was needed they would be handed over to a secular court. Execution for heresy were comparatively rare. Origin in ancient Roman law: probably cause hearings. Certain crimes are so detrimental to society that the state has right and responsibility to investigate. Heresy imperiled the soul or the heretic and those influenced. Used physical force. The Inquisition of later times ( ) is the one with the evil reputation. Gregory IX established the inquisition in “It is the duty of every Catholic to persecute heretics.” Children again parents, mothers against children no defense witnesses were permitted and prosecution witnesses remained anonymous. Acquittals were rare and no appeal. Once condemned, a victim was given over to be burned at the stake. He appointed the first two full-time inquisitors, Peter Seila and William Arnald. Tomas de Torquemada, became famous later in the Spanish Intuition. Robert le Bougre went to Champagne in France to investigate a local bishop people were condemned to die in the town. Pope Innocent IV added his own ideas and approved of torture. Witnesses could be tortured too, although boy under 14 and girls under 12 were exempt. One torture session could last for weeks as the pope only allowed one torture session. A guide was published Book of the Dead.

Mendicant Orders, Heretics and other Monastic Orders
Mendicants Franciscans Alms givers Dominican Educational services New Monastic Cistercians Heresies Cathars Lollards (extra: MCC pp 372) Heretical golden age in the ’s. There were other movements that had sprung up during this time which all practiced a life of simplicity. While not exactly heretical, they were a bit outside of orthodoxy and caused the pope some alarm. Innocent feared they world inspire laity to turn militantly against the church. So he sanctioned the Franciscan and Dominican orders which allowed their followers to be within the confines of the church organization. It also provided a response to the lay criticism that the pope was worldly. Waldensian, Beguines (radical Franciscans) and Beghards were three of such unorthodox movements. As well as the Cathars and Lollards. Beguines were convents of middle class lay women who were religiously earnest. They each contained 8-12 women. Some became prey to heresy. The Dominicans and Franciscan were formed to uproot some of the heresy. Lollards: Followers of John Wycliffe. At Oxford in the 1370s, Wycliffe came to advocate increasingly radical religious views. He denied the doctrine of transubstantiation and stressed the importance of preaching and the primacy of Scripture as the source of Christian doctrine. Claiming that the office of the papacy lacked scriptural justification, he equated the pope with Antichrist and welcomed the 14th-century schism in the papacy as a prelude to its destruction. Wycliffe was charged with heresy and retired from Oxford in Nevertheless, he was never brought to trial, and he continued to write and preach until his death in 1384. Condemned church corruption and worldliness. Lay people should preach. Follow spirit of Christ and follow the law. No body of doctrines but didn’t like the church. The church was too connected to the world. Anticipated the Protestant Reformation During the reign of Pope Innocent he gave official sanction to two new Mendicant orders Franciscans and Dominicans. Mendicants did not own property and could travel around from place to place. Monks were usually stationary and dedicated to one location. No other action of the pope had more effect on spiritual life. Members of these orders were known as friars and did not confine themselves to the cloister. They went out into the world to preach the church's mission and to combat heresy. The begged or worked to support themselves (thus the term mendicant). Both received special privileges form the pope and were solely under his jurisdiction. Special relationship with Rome gave friars independence from local clerical authority that will breed resentment among some secular clergy. Strengthened the church among the laity. Provided men and women the opportunity to affiliate with monastic life and pursue the ideals of poverty, obedience and Chasity while remaining laypeople. Lay people who joined were called tertiaries. Helped keep lay piety orthodox during this time of heightened religiosity. Franciscans 1209 St Francis of Assisi Son of a rich Italian cloth merchant who became disaffected with wealth and urged his followers to live a life of extreme poverty. Had received the stigmata-wounds of Christ. It was recognized in 1210 and the official rule was approved in 1223. dedicated themselves to preaching and service to the poor. They begged for alms and food and donated whatever they collected to the destitute. Simple message of love, forgiveness and charity. Two years after his death, St. Francis will be canonized by Gregory IX. However, two years after this, he canceled Saint Francis's Testament as the rule book for the Franciscan order. He found the guide to be impractical with its call for a nomadic life and because it conflicted with the papal plans to enlist the orders as an arm of church policy. The main branch of Franciscans began to comply with papal wish during the 13 century. Dominicans: Order of Preachers Founded by Saint Dominic Guzman ( ) well educated Spanish cleric sectioned in 1216 Aimed at bringing heretics back into the church. He viewed heresy as the product not of human evil or of Satanic mischief but the church’s failure to provide appropriate religious education. The confronted the heresies with relentless preaching and arguing. Confident that the errant had only to hear the truth properly and they would return to the Church's embrace. They converted Beguines who were sisterhoods of single lay women in the Netherlands an Belgium. They staffed the offices of the inquisition after 1223. Thomas Aquinas was a Dominican and was canonized in 1322. Led efforts to synthesize faith and reason. Monastic Orders Carthusians Members lived in isolation and fasted three days a week. Devoted themselves to long periods of silence and even self-flagellation in their quest for perfect self-denial and conformity to Christ. Canon Regular Independent groups of secular clergy and some laity. They adopted the Rule of St. Augustine monastic guide dating to around practiced the ascetic virtues of regular clerics. They combined the duties of the secular world (saying mass and such) with the duties of monks. Foreshadowed the Mendicants. Cistercians A reform wing of the Benedictine order and know as the white monks. This was a reference to their all white attire, symbolic of apostolic purity. They believed that Cluny was compromising the Benedictine Rules. They stressed the inner life and spiritual goals of monasticism. Houses were located in remote areas and denied themselves worldly comforts and distractions. Within 100 years they had 300 chapter houses and others imitated them as well. Premonstratensians

Later Crusades Later 1208-1271 Albignensian 5, 7, 8 focused on Egypt
6th Crusaders briefly gained Jerusalem The later Crusades were not just aimed at foreigners but anyone in continental Europe who was a heretic. The Albigensian Crusade ( ) aimed to root out the heretical Cathar or Albigensian sect of Christianity in France, while the Baltic Crusades ( ) sought to subdue pagans in Transylvania. Fifth, Seventh and eight focused on Egypt In the Fifth Crusade, put in motion by Pope Innocent III before his death in 1216, the Crusaders attacked Egypt from both land and sea but were forced to surrender to Muslim defenders led by Saladin’s nephew, Al-Malik al-Kamil, in 1221. From 1248 to 1254, Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt. This battle, known as the Seventh Crusade, was a failure for Louis. As the Crusaders struggled, a new dynasty, known as the Mamluks, descended from former slaves of the Islamic Empire, took power in Egypt. In 1260, Mamluk forces in Palestine managed to halt the advance of the Mongols, an invading force led by Genghis Khan and his descendants, which had emerged as a potential ally for the Christians in the region. Under the ruthless Sultan Baybars, the Mamluks demolished Antioch in In response, Louis organized the Eighth Crusade in The initial goal was to aid the remaining Crusader states in Syria, but the mission was redirected to Tunis, where Louis died. Edward I of England took on another expedition in This battle, which is often grouped with the Eighth Crusade but is sometimes referred to as the Ninth Crusade, accomplished very little and was considered the last significant crusade to the Holy Land. Sixth The Sicilian king and German emperor Frederick II negotiated the surrender of Ayyubid control over the Holy Land. In 1229, in what became known as the Sixth Crusade, Emperor Frederick II achieved the peaceful transfer of Jerusalem to Crusader control through negotiation with al-Kamil. The peace treaty expired a decade later, and Muslims easily regained control of Jerusalem. In 1291, one of the only remaining Crusader cities, Acre, fell to the Muslim Mamluks. Many historians believe this defeat marked the end of the Crusader States and the Crusades themselves. Though the Church organized minor Crusades with limited goals after 1291—mainly military campaigns aimed at pushing Muslims from conquered territory, or conquering pagan regions—support for such efforts diminished in the 16th century, with the rise of the Reformation and the corresponding decline of papal authority.

Lasting Impacts of the Crusades Political, Social and Religious
Renewed the king’s interest in controlling the church and vassals Church also tried to gain land Unity in Europe Religious Extended Christianity’s reach Power of Pope elevated Social Islamic influences entered literature and Medicine Safety valve for violence in Europe What were the political, religious and economic results of the Crusades? Which was most important? Political Renewed the king’s interest in controlling the church King’s gained power over vassals The crusades also affected the feudal system in Western Europe. Kings became more powerful because they had imposed new taxes in order to levy armies from all parts of their realms. On the other hand, many nobles died fighting far away from their home soil or sold political liberties to towns so that they could raise the money needed to go on a crusade. The Crusades weakened the feudal nobility and increased the power of kings. Thousands of knights and other participants lost their lives and fortunes. Clergy tried to gain land Among the crusaders, only 20 percent were able to return home; the rest died from wounds or were killed in the fighting. The property they left in Europe was handled by local bishops and churches and many were desperate to gain its ownership. Promoted unity in Europe common cause to fight for inspired and promoted chivalry (one who rode on horseback) Religious While the Crusades ultimately resulted in defeat for Europeans, many argue that they successfully extended the reach of Christianity and Western civilization. The Crusades are a forceful example of the power of the Church during the medieval period. The Roman Catholic Church experienced an increase in wealth. Power of the Pope and other clergy was elevated by their leadership roles in initiating the crusades. However, the failure of later Crusades also lessened the power of the pope. Social Medieval literature was changed Canterbury Tales was inspired by Arabian Nights They did act as a safety valve for violence prone Europe. With their husbands being absent, many wives increased their social status as they found themselves in charge of feudal estates. Chance to manage affairs on the estates or to operate shops and inns. Moreover, Europeans were inspired by the ideas exchanged among the crusaders from different European countries and between the crusaders and the other cultures they met on their campaigns. Western Christians learned about Islamic culture and Muslims about the Christian West.

Lasting Impacts of the Crusades Economic and Military
New banking techniques Encouraged trade and travel to the East Need to supply the Christian settlements New trade terms: custom, cheque, tariff Encouraged trade and travel opened up in the West Mediterranean states controlled the sea-lanes throughout the entire basin Venice powerful and will dominate trade from Goods like cotton, rice, sugar, lemons, apricots, peaches, melons What were the economic results of the Crusades? Which was most important? New banking techniques European merchants who lived and traded in the Crusader states expanded trade between Europe and Southwest Asia. Also encouraged European trade with Muslims and the east. Trade increased steadily. This trade with the West benefited both Christians and Muslims. Whenever new trading centers sprang up, cultural and economic commerce occurred. The need to resupply the new Christian settlements in the Near East reopened old trade routes which had been closed by Islamic domination of the Mediterranean and created new ones as well. The Franks were one of the main actors in the Levant with whom the Muslims had trade and commercial links despite the ‘official’ state of war. This trade would get boosted whenever peace treaties were enacted, particularly after the famous truce agreement between Richard I and Ṣalaḥ al-Dīn. Diplomatic relations would often foster civilian contacts. This did not mean that such contacts were always genteel, “but it does mean that Frankish-Muslim relations were far richer than the strictly military narrative would allow.” The commercial interaction implies cultural interaction, visible in the form of language. Many commercial terms of Arabic origin entered into various Romance languages: words for “custom” like douane and aduana all trace their roots from the Arabic diwān; and the words cheque from sakk (a letter of credit), and tariff from ta‘rif (a notification). Trade and transportation also improved throughout Europe as a result of the Crusades. The wars created a constant demand for supplies and transportation, which resulted in ship-building and the manufacturing of various supplies. Mediterranean states controlled the sea-lanes throughout the entire basin. Venice became a powerful city: salt and fish. Venice sent 207 ships on the first crusade. All Crusaders looked to this city. Merchants of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa followed the Crusaders across to lucrative new markets. Put Venice in contact with the East when the crusaders returned with their ships sometimes laden with precious cargo. Venice was ruled by a doge or duke. The doge of Venice had helped to defeat the Germans under Barbarossa and the Pope (who still had ongoing conflict with the Germans) gave the doge his signet ring. He told the doge to hold a ceremony every year and the waters of the Adriatic would be theirs. The doge dropped the golden ring into the water every year for 600 years until trade with the New World siphoned off his trade abilities. ( ?) stimulated by new goods such as cotton, rice, sugar, lemons, apricots, peaches, melons, etc.

Military Impacts Crossbow Carrier Pigeons Catapults Gunpowder Military
From a military point of view, all the crusades except the first were failures The crusaders obtained a lot of important military knowledge from their Muslim and Byzantine enemies. The crossbow, for instance, a highly efficient bow which was held horizontally and fired by pulling a trigger, became an indispensable element of Western European warfare in the Late Middle Ages. The Europeans also learned to send messages over long distances with the help of carrier pigeons. From the Byzantines the crusaders learned new ways of laying siege to mighty castles and towns, e. g. by undermining walls and using catapults. The Muslims, who had acquired the knowledge of gunpowder from the Chinese, also brought the crusaders from the West into contact with explosives used for military purposes.

Why were the Crusaders unsuccessful in establishing lasting political and religious control over the Holy Land? Jews and Muslims fought against the Crusaders Never captured Jerusalem and it reverted back to Muslims Expensive Disunity between East and West Muslims continued to expand 1453 took Constantinople Why were the Crusaders unsuccessful in establishing lasting political and religious control over the Holy Land? During some Crusades Jews and Muslims fought together against the Christian ‘invaders’. Politically and religiously they were a failure and the Holy land reverted back to the Muslims. The wars of represent the crucial turning point, which blunted the crusaders’ advances, breaking the momentum they had built up in previous years. They would fail in the taking of Aleppo in a seven year struggle and came close to taking it. The Franks did launch later attacks on Damascus and, later still, on Cairo, but never did they come this close to success. But they kept trying. Expensive to wage war and provide for the people Disunity between East and West (Catholic and Orthodox) The Crusades had also great repercussions in engendering the expansion and strengthening of the Muslim world. Constantinople, the capital of the Christian (Greek Orthodox) Byzantine Empire, fell to the Muslims and was renamed Istanbul.

Long Term Impact on the West
Rift between East and West lasting until 21st century Interest in travel and learning spread Paved way for Renaissance Fall of Constantinople Jewish Persecution Trade, ,towns, universities Technological and Scientific advancements Aristotle’s ideas spread Medicine/hospitals Literature What was the long term impact of the Crusades on Western societies and the Byzantine Empire? Among followers of Islam, however, the Crusaders were regarded as immoral, bloody and savage. The ruthless and widespread massacre of Muslims, Jews and other non-Christians resulted in bitter resentment that persisted for many years. Even today, some Muslims derisively refer to the West’s involvement in the Middle East as a “crusade.” For Muslims, the intolerance and prejudice displayed by Christians in the Holy Land left behind a legacy of bitterness and hatred. This legacy continues to the present. For Christians and Jews who remained in the Muslim controlled region after the fall of the Crusader states, relations with the Muslim leadership worsened. After the Crusades, there was a heightened interest in travel and learning throughout Europe, which some historians believe may have paved the way for the Renaissance. The fall of Constantinople weakened the Byzantine Empire. The crusades, however, also had a horrible side effect that would haunt European society for generations: the first widespread attacks on the Jews began with the crusades. For Jews in Europe, the Crusades were a time of increased persecution. As some Christians argued, to undertake holy wars against infidel Muslims while the “murderers of Christ” ran free at home was unbearable. The massacre of Jews became a frequent feature of medieval European life. Growth of trade, towns, and universities in medieval Europe. Similarly, there was considerable transmission of learning from Muslims to the Franks. Scientific and religious books were translated from Arabic into Latin and these formed the base for later significant developments in European intellectual culture. Muslims in turn also learned some tactics of war technology from the Franks.

Kingdoms Continued AD

Early England Iberians Celts Romans
By the 12th century, Europe witnessed the emergence of centralizing monarchies in France, England, and Spain. Germany was the most powerful by 950 but was weakened by Spain will be controlled by the Muslims until the 15th century. Early History Iberians settled 3500 BC Celts moved in around 700 BC and by 100 BC they had settled all of Britain (England, Scotland, and Wales) Romans: Julius Caesar attempted to conquer Britain from BC so that the Celts there wouldn’t aid the other Celts (Gauls) in continental Europe. Claudius began invading in 43 AD and by 84 AD Rome had conquered southern Britain (England and Wales). By AD 122 Rome had constructed Hadrian’s Wall in Northern England to keep the Picts (Scottish) out of their conquered territory in the south. The Romans “Romanized” the natives in modern (the southern part of the Isle) England by imposing their laws and culture. In Scotland and Wales, Rome allowed the natives to continue their own ways of living. Rome began to experience decline in Britain as they were having to push back all the German invaders by the late 3rd century. Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain around 410.

Medieval England Alfred the Great
By the 4th and 5th centuries, German tribes such as the Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain. They set up five kingdoms Kings first among equals Christianised in the late 6th century-Canterbury erected Vikings invaded AD 700’s-978 Created Danelaw Alfred the Great King of Wessex Art of Parley and practiced local governance United Wessex and Mercia Anglo-Saxons: When the Romans became preoccupied with the German invasions to the eastern part of their empire, the Visigoths by 378 will settle into Roman Territory. They would make their way west eventually into Spain. Soon other Germanic tribes invaded the West. The Anglo-Saxons, Danish/Germanic men who were invited into Celtic Britain to settle a royal dispute, conquered and settled into England. They destroyed the Roman culture there and set up their own. The Anglo-Saxons killed all the native men (Romanized Celts-they slaughtered around 90%) when they conquered. They took the women and intermarried. The earliest kings of the Anglo-Saxons were warlords and not Kings as we would typically think. Each group of settlers had a leader or war-chief. A strong leader became “cyning” or king. They would rule a kingdom and have a small army. The Anglo-Saxons set up kingdoms in Wessex, Kent, Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. The kings would claim to be first among equals which set up the future of Britain for the Magna Carta and future parliamentary government. During the 6th century, a warlord named Ethelbert married a French princess in 580 (Merovingian time!). This is the first time that an Anglo-Saxon is demonstrating expansion of power by marrying into another kingdom (the Franks). The Franks had converted to Christianity when Clovis took over. Ethelbert’s new bride brought Christianity to the British Isles. This forever changed Britain. When the new French bride arrived she influenced the Brits to accept Christianity (it was politically advantageous-France now had allegiance with the pope and commonalities with other Christian nations-Britain would also gain this). A bishop named Augustine was sent to convert the Brits. He set up a monastery in Canterbury which would continue to contain the Archbishop of England until present day. His Roman ideas of power and culture would influence the prestige of the English King. Christianity would give the kingship a sacred character (compare themselves to Biblical kings like David and give them power/ influence by claiming a divine right). It also helped to establish the ideas of Feudalism as well. The church would serve as the model in how to structure a political hierarchy which helped the young government establish a political structure in England. The other warlords/kings in England would continue to wage war against each other. In 757 Offa became king of Mercia and started the process of unifying England. He would control many of the kingdoms in England but not all. Some historians see him as the first king who sought to unify England under one king. Some also see him as the greatest king prior to Alfred the Great. These kings were still crowned with helmets in the ways of the old warlords and wouldn’t be crowned with a crown quite yet. After his death, England would become separated once again. Vikings Vikings began years of invasion beginning in the 700’s and continuing until The Danish invaders set up a section of rule in England, the eastern part of England that would be called Danelaw ( ). The northern section of England, Northumbria and the southwestern section of England, Wessex, would be continued to be controlled by the Anglo-Saxons. Alfred the Great until new Danish invasion in 978: Alfred the Great (Post Treaty of Verdun/Climax of the Abbasids) King of Wessex He nurtured the practice of parley or the holding of a conference between the king and lesser powers who also had vested interest in royal decisions. Because of Alfred’s ability to administer effective justice, he was able to gather large support from the common people. The common people would meet in local courts to have the reeve (local official) hear their cases. The common people would form juries to solve community conflicts. These common people banned together to help push out the Danish in 871. He united Wessex and Mercia to negotiated with the Danes. Alfred was able to reclaim territory away from the Danes. He will create treaties with the Danes to establish boundaries, and the Danelaw will become established under his reign. He instituted a Danegeld which was a tax to help defend against future Danish uprisings. He became the first King of the Angles and the Saxons and the first to truly unify England under one king.

Government under the Anglo-Saxons
Kings and Vassals Poorly developed feudal system until 1066 King, Earl, Thanes, Churls, Thralls Shires Local governor: “sheriff” and an Earl who reported to the Cyng Earls advised the King (witan), led armies and held courts 2xs/year. Burgh/town Villages under local law were governed by consent no need for castles After 1066 when the king had ultimate authority, castles were created The kings of England are the first royalty to really establish this idea of the King as the highest official in the Feudal pyramid. However, England will provide much control to the locals during the time of Alfred until In places like France, they will also develop a king with absolute control. However the kings in France will need to intermarry among their nobility to increase power. In England they had a poorly developed feudal system which will be brought with William in 1066. King of Wessex who divided up his kingdom into shires. These shires were akin to the counties of France and the duchies of Germany. The counties and duchies were ruled by counts and dukes. The shires were governed by a reeve (shire-reeve also known as a “sheriff”) which was a little lower than an Earl. The English had Earls but no Dukes until later. (The vassal ranking: Do men ever visit Boston?: Dukes; Marquis; Earl (England)/Count(France); Viscount; Baron) The Anglo-Saxons didn’t have castles until the Norman invasion either. They created villages which would be under local law. Part of the culture of the Anglo-Saxons was government by consent (or you needed the permission of the people to rule them). These villages would multiply together and form a burgh or town. Similar things happened across Europe as well when villages began to increase in population. The major difference was the appearance of castles. Continental Europe had them as a means to intimidate and protect. England, under the Anglo-Saxons placed more authority in the locals. Later, under the Normans, French culture would dominate and the King would have ultimate authority. Rule of the Anglo-Saxons until the Vikings Under his sons and grandsons, England continued to become more unified. They would defeat the last Viking king in 954 and a final invasion of Vikings would occur for the last time between The former warlords in the English kingdoms became Earls (later under the Normans more titles of dukes and counts would be added). They governed over areas which were then divided into shires. The Earls were advisors to the kings and had an advisory council or witan consisting of lesser nobles from the shires. The Earls owned lots of land, could lead armies, and held courts twice per year. Thanes supported the Earls and were the lesser nobles or knights. Unlike the knights in France, they didn’t have their own private castles. The Churls were the peasants. They paid rent, worked the fields, and served in the military even. They helped keep the roads, bridges, and had more independence and freedom than did their counterparts in Europe. Thralls were slaves captured from war, those sold to pay debts, or criminals.

Culture under the Anglo-Saxons
Alfred Published books in vernacular English Church different Rejected idea of priestly celibacy Translated bibles into English Christianized Celtic art and symbols Elves and goblins became demons Rejected papal approval of saints Women owned property (until 1066) Culture under the Anglo-Saxon kings: Alfred published books in English-the vernacular or common tongue. The church controlled the Archbishop of Canterbury. Bishops were artists and musicians and rejected the idea that they shouldn’t marry. Bibles were translated into English. The Angles and Saxons blended the pagan art of the Celts with their own and Christianized it. Ideas such as elves and goblins were all former pagan ideas and came to represent demons. They refused to acknowledge the approval of the pope in nominating saints. The last bishop under the Anglo-Saxons, before the Danes invaded in the 970’s, was very devout but was beaten to death by animal bones by the Vikings. Women could own land and property until % of all land was owned by women who probably had connections to the aristocracy. They were in charge of some monasteries and harassment of women could end up with fines.

Viking Kings Civil war under Ethelred II or Ethelred the Unready as Danish kings invaded for the throne Canute ( ) Restored order and brought unity to England King of Norway/Denmark and England Gave control to the Earls in England Exiled or killed former sons of Ethelred Alfred’s great-grandson, Edgar the peaceful (reigned until 975), was the first king to be given a crown instead of a helmet. He saw himself as a Christ-like figure. England can be considered the world’s first nation-state now. One language, centralized government, first unified currency. Golden Age of art and literature. His son was crowned but then murdered by Edgar’s other son Ethelred the Unready (he’s unready because he refuses to take advice). Final Viking Invasions ( ) Vikings attack in 978 while Ethelred is king. They are forced to pay tribute to the Danes and the prosperity of the Golden Age ( ) after Alfred the Great begins to decline. Married the sister, Emma, of the Duke of Normandy in 1002 in hopes that they would persuade their relatives not to invade Britain anymore. The Normans were former Vikings who had settled on the northern coast of France. But more invasion occurred until 1014 when Ethelred was driven into exile. Danish king, Swain, took the throne but died a few months later. Ethelred was invited to return in 1014 but he also died soon after. Cnut (or Canute) the son of Swain took the throne. Reign of Canute He purged the Anglo-Saxon Nobles. Cnut was king of Norway/Denmark and England. He did all this as a teenager! Married Emma the widow of Ethelred. Wanted to make sure the Normans would stay neutralized. English sources will say that they made him in to an English gentleman. While he was away to govern Norway and Denmark, he began to pass down power to the Earls. One of those Earls was Godwin Earl of Wessex. He had gained a tremendous amount of power and desired his sons to be heir to the crown. Cnut and Emma desired for their children to be the heirs of England and exiled or murdered the heirs of Emma and Ethelred. Ethelred’s oldest son was Edward Ironsides-he had his eyes gauged out and died. Ethelred’s other son, Edward the Confessor, was exiled to Normandy-his mother’s former home.

Reign of Edward the Confessor
Canute had no heirs so son of Ethelred returned from Normandy to rule Needed an heir William Duke of Normandy did public homage and the English feared Edward’s growing power Sent vassal Harold Godwin to swear to William that he would get the crown (That’s what the Normans say) However, Edward told Harold to look after his wife… Edward the Confessor However, Edward the Confessor was able to claim the throne when other heirs were killed in battles. He is named Confessor because the English thought he was “monk-like”. He had no heirs. His reign demonstrates the tension between the Lords and kings. Godwin is imprisoned for the death of Edward’s brother (Edward Ironsides) as he helped kill him (different stories about this however). Edward made the French and Normans into allies against Godwin. In 1056 Earl Godwin was released from prison. But after refusing to reprimand the nobility in his shires after they slaughtered people, civil war nearly erupted between the Earl and Edward. The nobles on both sides however refused to fight and gave their support to Edward as to balance the power away from the Earl. Godwin and his family fled into exile. Since Edward was childless, he began searching for an heir. Edward’s family on his mother’s side hailed from Normandy and William, the Duke of Normandy was promising. William Duke of Normandy did public homage (swore loyalty) to Edward. This would have created more power for Edward and alliances in Normandy/France and William now expected to be king! Fearing that Edward might be gaining too much power, the nobles invited Godwin and his family back. After the Earl of Godwin died, the people ruled under Godwin’s son Tostig rebelled and sent Tostig into exile (1065-Tostig was a horrible ruler). Harold Godwin was sent by Edward to Normandy and swore to help William get the crown in order to maintain order in England. (The Normans record that this happened but the Anglo-Saxons say it only happened under extreme stress and Harold never really meant it-his boat got shipwrecked on accident and William forced him to swear the oath. Or he went there to free a relatives who were prisoners of William.) On his deathbed in 1066, Edward the Confessor asked Harold to look after his wife Edith-in other words become the next king. Harold claimed the crown! Culture under Edward the Confessor, the Danes and the Normans 1065 Archbishop of Canterbury served the king and earls more than the church. Accused of simony and became the 3rd wealthiest man. Refused to get the pope’s blessing. Churches became more corrupt by Bishop Leofgar was chosen to be a bishop only because of his moustache. It made him look like a warrior and Earl Godwin really needed more military at his disposal. Leofgar died in his first battle.

Battle of Hastings The next king would need
Direct blood-line of previous king Chosen by previous king Chosen by the witan Four people claimed the crown Edgar-great nephew of Edward Harold Godwinson* Harold Hardrada William Duke of Normandy* In 1066 William the Conqueror invaded from Normandy and defeated the English King Harold II (Harold was killed by an arrow through the eye!). Norman Invasion and the End of Anglo-Saxon Rule The next king would need 2 out of 3 of these qualifications: Direct blood-line of previous king Chosen by previous king Chosen by the witan Four people would claim the crown: Edward Atheling (Edgar): great nephew of Edward the confessor, direct bloodline but witan rejected him (He decided he didn’t really want the crown. Had 1 out of 3) Harold Godwinson: no direct bloodline, powerful, said Edward chose him, Witan supported him (2 out of 3) Harold Hardrada: no direct blood line, powerful, King of Norway, Witan rejected (1 out of 3) William Duke of Normandy: aunt was Queen of England, powerful, Edward chose him, Witan rejected (said that he was promised the throne and Harold was sent to pledge homage to him. 2 out of 3) Tostig and the King of Norway joined forces and met Harold in battle. Harold killed them. The troops were very exhausted and then had to meet William’s forces as he was also claiming the throne. Oct William defeats Harold at the Battle of Hastings and becomes the next king of England. The Battle has been portrayed on the famous Bayeux Tapestry. William was crowned King on Christmas Day.

Aftermath of the Norman Invasion
William introduced a strong and efficient central government while still keeping the element of parley. Forced church to conform to Catholicism. Turned shires into fiefs. Forced vassals to raise an army to support the king in return for land and spread out their land over large areas. Created castles now. Brutally supressed rebellions Domesday Book England changed. French influence and Latin. Would values change as well? Norman Conquest Based on conquest and brutal pacification. He maintained some of the traditional ideas of Anglo-Saxon kings such as the tradition of parleying by consulting with the nobles. The result was blending of the “one” and the many a balance between monarchical and parliamentary which has been a feature of English government until today. Brought to England Lanfranc, a Norman abbot and placed him in Canterbury. Lanfranc changed the church and forced it to conform to Catholic standards from Rome. William got along with the Pope but controlled the church in England as well. William turned the small estates in the shires into fiefs in the manner of the rest of Europe. He began a type of English feudalism. He gave 180 shires to his most loyal followers (replaced the Anglo-Saxons-pretty much wiped them out). Unlike France, in which each kingdom had a lord who had an army of his own (the king had to marry noble women to annex territory for himself), William gave his vassals land only in return if they raised vassals to support him, the king. These knights would swear loyalty to the king as the final lord of all vassals. He also gave vassals many pieces of land spread out over England so they wouldn’t gain too much power. This prevented invasions as William had lots of unified support. The knights were also a French idea as the English would ride into battle but fight on foot. The Normans fought on horseback. Introduced chivalry as a system to encourage warriors. In chivalry, the French would treat its enemies of high social rank well if captured-the English generally killed captured enemies. As in the rest of Feudalistic Europe, the new Norman Barons began to construct fortified strongholds. They created castles which were from France. Castles were designed to intimidate versus the English towns which were only for the people. The lords would surround their homes with a palisade or fence. Eventually, these lords would begin to build ditches, place a fence on the inside of the ditch, and use the leftover dirt to construct a large mound in the center of the area. These early castles would be called burghs (German burg). Eventually, as people would surround the castles and create villages, towns would grow and these small towns would be referred to as a burg or burgh (Pittsburgh/Edinburgh). (The hamburger did come from the town of Hamburg) The Anglos would continue to rebel. In 1069, he carried out something called the Harrying of the North he killed 100,000 people. A king had never killed done anything like this. For 18 years the land was laid to waste. Put back the economy of the north back by decades. Designed to put fear into English people. He eventually ended all rule of the former Anglo-Saxon nobles. Domesday Book: book which recorded the value of his kingdom; William took a census of the people, counted buildings, animals, mills, and anything else of value. Nothing like this would occur again until 1790. William died in a riding accident. He had gotten too fat to fit into his sarcophagus and had to be forced in. His stomach burst and assailed the people standing around with quite an odor. The service had to be rushed to conclusion. Benefits of Norman invasions: abbeys, cathedrals, chivalry, French, stronger monarchy, kept consent by the governed Downside: more class-based society (French feudalism)

Expanding Kingdoms Frontier problem
The expanding role of central governments Relations between rulers and their people Relations with the church Economic issues 1150’s also opened up new opportunities all over Europe. Five problems faced in varying degree by every medieval government can serve to organize our discussion of the successes and failures of the major states of Europe: Frontier problem: in no part of Europe was the exact geographic shape of the eventual state evident The expanding role of central governments: One constant of the age was a growth in the size, sophistication and effectiveness of governments Relations between rulers and their people: growing government power often meant that traditional nobilities lost power while obscure men rose to prominence in the service of kings. Relations with the church: this was an old medieval problem. The relationships that the church had with kingdoms began to change slightly as governments in France, England, and Spain grew. Economic issues: Governments found themselves needing more resources at a time when the great expansion of the eleventh and twelfth centuries began to slow.

Angevins Henry I killed his brother and son was killed in boating “accident”-had only daughter Civil War between Stephen and Matilda William was followed by his two sons: William II and Henry I. They continued Williams’ administrative system. William I had three sons: Duke Robert Curthose (for his short legs), of Normandy, was considered to be weak and easily led. William who was the second child who was more brutish like his father. Henry I who was cunning and had received no title or land after William I’s death. William I named his son William II to be the next king. William II was rather greedy and was ruthless. The rule of the Normans was harsh. They burned crops and destroyed hundreds of villages. They slaughtered cattle and sheep and killed inhabitants by the thousands. They claimed the rights to English forests. In the “New Forest” one of these forests, he expelled over 500 families and took over 900, 000 acres (kind of like a National park). Punishment was brutal and at the king’s whims if someone was caught hunting in one of his claimed forests. Blinding and severing of hands if an animal was killed. He also plundered the monasteries. The people felt no allegiance to this king. August 2, 1100 William II who was nicknamed Rufus due to his red hair was out hunting. His close friend Walter Tirel was with him. An arrow was shot and hit William in the chest. He died instantly. Rumors spread that it was his friend Tirel who later fled into France-though denied the murder for his entire life. Others also had motivation. Henry I wasted no time in being crowned the next king. Within three days he had seized the royal treasure then raced 60 miles to London and had himself crowned. He knew that Robert was fighting in the crusades. When Robert returned he found Henry king and married to the princess of Scotland. Henry imprisoned Robert for life until his death at the age of 81. Robert never tried to escape and simply learned Welsh and wrote poetry. Henry I swore to rule with consent by the people-like a former Anglo-Saxon king. Tried to establish an Anglo-Norman dynasty. Henry introduced justices who traveled through the kingdom. Henry I would appoint these men which prevented local lords from administering justice. He also appointed men as sheriffs-also preventing local control. Both England and France didn’t have too much conflict with the Roman Popes. William II placed Normans into the church. Norman cathedrals were advertisements for Norman power and visible proofs of God on the Norman’s side. Though Henry I and the Bishop of Canterbury conflicted over whether the king could appoint his own church officials. Archbishop Anselm spent time in exile. Civil War between Stephen of Blois and Matilda Henry I’s son drowned in the English Channel (they were rather drunk on a ship on their way back from Normandy and the captain capsized the boat). He wanted his daughter Matilda to be queen as she carried Anglo-Saxon blood. Henry forced the nobility to swear four times, , to accept her. But she was a women and she was also married to a French man. She was 19 and intelligent, forceful, well-educated and self-confident. She was also disagreeable and brutal. The nobles refused to allow his daughter Matilda to rule as queen. She was married to Count Geoffrey of Anjou (France) and the nobles feared his family. The nobles elected Stephen of Blois-grandson of William the Conqueror and nephew of Henry I but he had no legal right to the throne. Stephen and Matilda went to war for 7 years. The was a succession of long sieges of castle and other strongholds. No one could out do the other. It had a devastating effect on England. Towns and villages were pillaged by both sides. Refugees wandered the countryside, seeking shelter in monasteries and nunneries. Trade slumped and barons raided, robbed, and destroyed. Food was scarce…some ate the flesh of dogs and horses…garbage of herbs and roots… Matilda cared nothing for the sorry plight of the people. She demanded huge sums of money to pay for her coronation. A mob drove her from the city right before her coronation and she never returned. She finally gave up the civil war. Stephan claimed the throne and lasted 18 years. He’ll be the last Norman King. He decided to make Matilda’s son Henry II of Anjou the next king. Henry II will become the first Plantagenet king (though many call him and his sons the Angevin dynasty). The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify four distinct royal houses: Angevins (Henry’s family), Lancaster, York, and two cadet branches?? and then the Tudors took over

Henry II Henry of Anjou -son of Matilda
Married Eleanor of Aquitaine and will control 3/5’s of France From 12th century until 14th century France and England will be at war over territory 5 sons Ruled as King and Queen from Civil War from Eleanor imprisoned in a tower Henry had married Eleanor of Aquitaine while he was still the count of Anjou and not the king of England. They were said to be in love. However, they needed to have her marriage to the king of France annulled first. She was made the ward of Louis VI when her father died. After being unable to produce a son, the marriage to Louis the VII was annulled on the grounds that they were to closely related but really on the suspicion that Eleanor had been unfaithful. She got the dowry of her lands back. The king of France lost the Aquitaine and Poitou which Eleanor controlled. They married 8 weeks after her annulment. Henry inherited Anjou, Maine, and Touraine from his father and then the Aquitaine and Poitou from his wife. He would own 3/5’s of France and create the Plantagenet Dynasty. Louis VII saw a threat to France with English expansion and the French will try to expel England until the mid 15th century after the 100 years’ war. He was the third cousin and 11 years younger than her. She bore Henry 8 children over the next thirteen years: five sons, three of whom became kings; and three daughters. She was very strong minded and independent. She objected to all of the affairs of Henry and his two illegitimate children. She possibly had one of Henry’s mistresses poisoned, Rosamunde Clifford. Eleanor was powerful influence on politics and culture in 12th century France. She went with her first husband King Louis VII on the second crusade becoming an example for women of lesser stature who were then venturing in war and business. Also sponsored troubadours and poets at her court in Anger in Anjou after her marriage to Henry (before he was king of England). Bernart de Ventadorn composed many of the most popular love songs of the high medieval aristocratic society at this time for her. They’ll live in England from as Henry’s queen. She separated from him because of his public philandering and cruel garment of her. She encouraged Louis VII and her sons to join together to rebel against Henry. She’ll live in Poitiers with her daughter and made the court there a famous center for literature of courtly love. Continent proved to be a constant irritant for Henry. Tried to provide territory for his four sons from his French land. Had no intention on actually giving it to them causing his sons to rebel with the help of Eleanor and Louis VII. The rebellion was put down and she was imprisoned for the next 16 years in Winchester However, Geoffrey allied with Philip Augustus to try to wrestle the French land away. Richard and John fought over English property holdings. John joined forces with Richard. Richard and King Philip stormed across the French territories of the Angevin empire in northern France capturing the strongholds. Barons began to desert him. He fled to Anjou but his enemies pursued him there. Henry died a few days later. Eleanor was not released until 6 July 1189, when Henry died and their second son, Richard the Lionheart, ascended the throne.

Government under Henry II
Establish English rule in Ireland, Wales, Scotland Expanded the size and competence of the English government Common Law Used Norman ways to fashion English government Domesday-like inquest Brought clergy into royal courts Thomas Becket murdered Henry placed under interdict Henry himself was known as curtmatles or short coat. He was squat, square and freckle-faced. Appeared unkempt and even grubby. He thought nothing of appearing at court covered in mud. Henry II was hot tempered, masterful and stubborn. Cared nothing for religion. Missed church services. When he was in a rage he would tear his clothes, fall to the floor and eat the carpet (made of straw of course). Henry had no intention of giving up his French territory. He introduced English rule in Ireland. Reestablished some English authority over Wales an Scotland-made them vassals. In England he mad major changes in the scope and administration of English law. Expanded the size and the competence of the English government by using judicial institutions. Bring more activity into the royal courts to take power away from the nobles. Swift and fair justice. Royal courts consistently applying a single law in all their sittings, a common law began to grow up through the country. Earliest kingdom to advance on the road to unification. He used Norman practices to fashion English government to make it into the best governed kingdom in Europe. Like in France, he used men of low or modest means but of great intelligence to staff government offices. Supported and was supported by towns and the church. These both wanted to circumvent the nobility. Good eye for new revenue. Carried out two inquests like the Domesday investigators. Detailed listing of the fiefs of England and what was owed to the king by them. Replaced many of the sheriffs with those who were more efficient and loyal to the king (Robin Hood). Became more autocratic at home. Forced his will on the clergy in the Constitution of Clarendon. This brought clergy that had committed serious crimes into the royal courts and gave the king control over the election of bishops. Result was political resistance from both the nobility and clergy. Thomas Becket the archbishop of Canterbury protested. They were close friends. They went hunting, gaming and hawking together. Henry gave him much land that Beckett became a wealthy man. Liked the taste of wealth and had a personal household of 700 knights and 52 clerks to manage his estates. Indulged in finery. Thomas was loyal to Henry from when he was chancellor (chief royal official) until he was appointed as the archbishop. Henry appointed him in hopes that he could secure a tighter control over the church in England and diminish the power of the pope. Thomas was traditional and not what Henry thought would happen. He gave up all his wealth, his wardrobe and finery. He devoted himself to study, prayer and acts of charity. He began to back up the Pope and obstructed the king from trying clergy that had committed crimes outside the church. Henry made up various criminal charges against him such as embezzling public funds. Thomas appealed to the Pope to help him but wound up fleeing to France and lived in exile for 6 years. Henry had his son Henry crowned the next king by the archbishop of York except that the archbishop of Canterbury was supposed to do it. Thomas protested. Four of Henry’s knights arrived at Canterbury and murdered Beckett before the altar of his cathedral. These knights were disgraced and banished to the Holy Land. Becket was soon canonized as a saint and Henry had to back down on criminous clerks. Beckett’s shrine was visited by thousands of pilgrims but was destroyed by King Henry VIII in the 16 century as an unwelcome reminder of a subject who defied the king. Church still had more control over the church than the kings. Henry’s lands in France were laid under interdict. He was forced to walk barefoot through the streets of Canterbury dressed in sackcloth and prayed while being scourged by 80 monks who beat him with branches. Spent the following night in the freezing crypt where Becket was buried. He then received the pardon for the murder he committed.

Richard I As Queen dowager, Eleanor acted as regent while Richard went on the Third Crusade; on his return Richard was captured and held prisoner. Eleanor lived well into the reign of her youngest son, John. She outlived all her children except for John and Eleanor. Richard the Lionheart Richard freed his mother from Winchester and was crowned king. Resided less than 10 months in England during his ten year reign. Spent time in France struggling with Philip II (haggling over land rights) and going on crusades. Celebrated warrior thus his nickname Lionheart. No interest in fighting to defend England only defending his Duchy from Philip II. John constantly tried to take over the kingdom. Richard put his mother in charge during his absences. Richard sold earldom, lordships, sheriffdoms, castles, lands, estates, and entire towns to raise money for his crusades. Third Crusade was a success in military terms and he was hailed as an even greater hero. He joined forces with the king of France and the Duke of Austria. Soon the king of France decided it would be easier to return to France than continue to quarrel with Richard. He also announced that Duke Leopold of Austria shouldn’t be flying his banner right next to his. The duke refused to move his banner, Richard told his men to go steal the banner and throw it into the mud. The Duke left and went home. Richard marched on to Jerusalem but Saladin’s army came out to meet him and kept him for ever reaching the city. Once Richard fought his way into sight of Jerusalem. Richard started hearing rumors about John trying to steal his throne. So Richard started back to England to protect his crown. When Richard’s boat ran aground off the coast of Venice, Richard was forced to journey overland into Vienna Austria. The Duke was waiting for him. The duke sold Richard to Emperor Henry VI of Germany who locked him in a tall prison tower. All of England mourned over his death. According to legend, Richard’s faithful friend Blondell refused to believe in his death. He crisscrossed Europe on foot peering into every dungeon. He would sing an English song and pause to see whether anyone answered. It was almost dark one night when he halted at one tall grim tower he sat down at the base and sang Greensleves. He heard the second line hummed above him. He leapt to his feet and saw Richard in the window above him. The emperor demanded a huge ransom. He put him up for auction. His brother John tired to buy him by selling the Aquitaine lands to France. But Richard bought himself by ruining England. Church gold and silver-plates were seized and sold and a whole year’s wool crop was taken from ranches run by two Cistercian monasteries and a 25% tax was levied on all income. Richard died trying to defend his lands from the French. A wound became septic and he died.

John I Richard 1189-1199 John 1199-1216 Lost Normandy
Made alliance with Otto to gain French land-lost Run-ins with the Church (took salaries) Magna Charta John English nobles angry at being ignored by the Plantagenets Treasury was empty (Richard had to be ransomed when he was kidnapped after the third crusade) After gathering support from the barons and clergy he crowned himself king at Westminster He divorced his childless wife, Isabella and married another Isabella-12 year old heiress to Angouleme in France. She was betrothed already to a Hugh de Lusignan. He complained to Philip who seized England's lands in France. Philip also tried to replace John with his nephew, Arthur, the son of John’s brother Geoffrey. Many of the barons in England’s land in France sided with France. However, John managed to capture Arthur. Arthur disappeared from history (was threatened with being blinded and castrated). John’s cruel treatment of people alerted his barons that he was a dangerous tyrant. John routinely abused episcopal vacancies and had run ins with the church. When a bishop died, he wouldn’t replace him and instead took this salary. Refused to accept Pope Innocent’s candidate for the archbishopric of Canterbury. England was placed under interdict and excommunicated john. John gave in when it proved politically advantageous to do so. Made alliance with Otto IV Germany wanted to attack and divide France but Philip Augustus defeated his enemies in He lost his French holdings. He began to charge large sums of money in return for bestowing titles on his barons. He also needed to raise money to fight to gain his lands back. He announced that whenever a nobleman died and left his land to his son, the son would have to pay extra money to the king-an inheritance tax. If the son was still a child the king would control the land and make money from it. Soon the noblemen started to feel poor. At Runnymede June 15, 1215, the Barons forced John to sign the Magna Charta. It was a statement of the barons’ rights and privileges. 63 clauses spelled out ways that forced the king to admit that he needed to obey certain rules. Even the king was under the law. John soon broke his word. The barons invited Louis the prince of France to take his place. Louis seized the White Tower and Westminster Palace. He was hailed as King of England by his arm! The Pope excommunicated him because you can’t kick God’s chosen ruler off a throne. Suddenly John died of dysentery! His son, Henry III took the throne. He was crowned in hiding as Louis was trying to capture England. England was restored and French forced to make a peace treaty. Henry’s mother returned to France and married her former betrothed, Hugh. They had nine children together! Her daughter would be come queen consort of Scotland. Demanded new types of revenues-barons and townspeople withheld the monies except with their explicit approval People wouldn’t pay for new foreign policy During the High Middle Ages England would develop a Parliament and the radical concept that the law applied to the King! It would also wage a series of wars with another rising European power - France.

13th century England Henry III (1216-1272) and Edward I (1272-1307)
Nobles vied for power Parliament formed Henry III Under Henry III and Edward I -King wants to choose his own advisers-barons refuse The English monarchy always ruled with an assembly-parliament. The King never really chose his own advisors. Henry III wanted to reclaim the lands lost I France and expand into Germany. The barons didn’t wish too. The barons really outnumbered by the French. Henry took a French wife Eleanor of Provence and filled his court with her relatives. He only listened to French advisors. He was encouraged to become an absolute ruler. Henry decided to try to conquer Sicily with the Pope’s permission. Henry taxed his subjects heavily but his barons were furious. They refused to pay. The church refused too. The people were already struggling with bad weather and they couldn't’ pay either. He was unable to raise funds. The barons tried to banish the French from Henry’s court and replace the people in the court with English barons. They set up a council to advise (control) the king. The royal treasure was almost empty his subjects were starving and their mood was ugly. He signed the Provisions of oxford to met the demands of his nobles. But soon reneged on the provisions. War followed and Henry and his son Edward were captured by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester. He was a brutal and self-seeking baron. Made the king sign laws, orders, and convened a Parliament. Edward escaped, formed an army and killed Simon and his army. Henry was restored. Parliament: English royal council Edward I Edward needed money for his wars with Philip IV and the Welsh and Scots. He needed to figure out approval and raise money and political cooperation. 1277 Edward invaded Wales with the intention of totally subduing it. Built immense castles and made his son the Prince of Wales-still the title of those who are the heir to the throne. Between England and Scotland went to war four time and Edward resolved in 1280s to put an end to the struggle by annexing it. The Scots railed under Robert Bruce who ironically was of Norman lineage. But Robert managed to free Scotland for a few more centuries. Also the time of William Wallace. (they didn’t wear kilts! Not around until the 16 century) Edward died broke but his family was securely in power. Things under Henry and Edward: Parliament, common law, the common man spoke English.

Medieval France Capetian Dynasty

Early France 850-1050 Dukes and Counts ruled
1050 Kings gained more power Constant waves of Vikings and failure of the Carolingians to produce an heir Small kingdoms rose up Viking Rollo granted the land in Normandy Capetian Dynasty Hugh Capet French kings needed to marry noble women to gain land and support Louis VII Lost Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II who would then control 3/5 of France Dukes and Counts ruled 1050 Kings gained more power Constant waves of Vikings and failure of the Carolingians to produce an heir in France Small kingdoms rose up 12 different ones Brittany, Basque, Gascony, Burgundy had been settled for years by this point Princes Right to raise armies, hold a census, collect taxes, mint coins, protect churches After being defeated by the Franks at the Battle of Chartres in 911, the Viking leader Rollo and the Frankish King Charles the Simple signed the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, under which Charles gave Rouen and the area of present-day Upper Normandy to Rollo, establishing the Duchy of Normandy. Capetian Dynasty Powerful feudal nobles controlled France until 1180 Hugh Capet France turned to Hugh Capet and ignored the Carolingian dynasty (The Capetians had already chosen 3 kings by this point) Hugh controlled 24 bishoprics, 50 monasteries, appointed bishops/abbots, and had material support from the church Robert the Pius Attributed with the royal touch: cure people of scrofula (respiratory issue) with his touch Succession was now practiced: his son crowned while King still alive Louis VI Suppressed minor nobility Also had the royal touch Promoted Saint Denis (San Dene) Added more people to his court Louis VII Focused on the grandeur of the king not his power Larger more impressive assemblies Married the heiress of Aquitaine which multiplied his land (she had Aquitaine and Poitou) Eleanor had the marriage annulled and married Henry of Anjou who inherited Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Toleraine. He would be crowned Henry II of England. Henry would control 3/5 of France. built on the solid work of his predecessors but faced a single vassal, Henry II of England who owned more of France than he did. French Differences and Problems Concentrated their limited resources on securing the royal area-Paris and Ile-de-France to the northeast. Will gain near absolute obedience from noblemen in this area. Paris will become the center of French government and culture. They will impose their will on the French nobles. They watched with alarm as the Duke of Normandy, French vassal, also gained the power of England. Then later Henry II will control 3/5 of France. However, it will force them to use their wealth to secure an army. France began to see themselves as dominating European culture as early as the first Crusade. Seen as a French enterprise. Greatest monastic order was the French Cistercian. French quarters in almost all large towns outside France. The aristocracy of England conversed in French. Premier literary language after Latin. French manners, style, and elegance were admired and emulated everywhere. Gothic was call the French style. The French trained their sons to be the next ruler so to stifle any nobility as potential rivals. They were much more stable than Germany. Controlled a centrally located royal territory. They supported the church and the church supported them. They didn’t have the entanglements that Germany had with the church. Needed to marry noble wives to gain land and support. Will work to secure the rights of the king unlike England who worked to secure the rights of many.

France Philip II 1180-1223 Louis VIII 1223-1226 Louis IX 1226-1270
Called Philip Augustus Increased the lands of France and increased control Gave lands to bailiffs to rule Louis VIII Gave lands to royal family Louis IX Promoted justice and peace Abolished serfdom Suppressed warfare on royal lands Philip Augustus Inherited good financial resources and a skilled bureaucracy. Resisted the competition of the French nobility and the clergy. This allowed him to compete against the sons of Henry II in England. His armies will occupy all the English king’s territories except Aquitaine. (see below for how) They also were able to gain Anjou back by pitting the sons against the father and one another. John I was a vassal of the king of France. He ran off with the fiancée of a French nobleman who sued him in the court of Philip Augustus. John refused to answer to the summons to the French court. Philip demanded his fiefs back. France won and reclaimed it land in 1204. He also pushed back the Germans as well. They fought at Bouvines in Flanders on July 27, 1214 at what is considered the first great European battle, the French won. This will unify the nobles around the king. The German king will fall from power over this as well as spark the rebellion against King John and the Magna Carta was created. The fastidious application of feudal laws brought the king of France to an unmatched positon in his own realm. French revenues double between He gave any new territories gained, like the Angevin lands, to a bailiff. These bailiffs were non-nobles, trained in law, ruled short times, and had not family connections in the areas they ruled. The had to give an account of their work at the end. Refused to get entangled in too many risky property interests even when the papacy preached a crusade to counter the threat of the Cathar heresy. Louis VIII ( ) Divided up some of the former Angevin lands and gave them to the royal family. This way he kept land out of the hands of the nobility and provided resources and responsibility to a person who might otherwise have spent their time plotting against the king. Louis IX Embodied the idea of the perfect ruler Unified and secure kingdom. Moral and ethical character. Since he wasn’t beset with problems he could focus his attention on reforming French. believed that the king’s highest duty was the promotion of peace and justice. Renewed the missi dominicci of Charlemagne. Abolished serfdom and suppressed private warfare on royal lands. Reforms made people look to the king rather than nobles. Gave subject the right of appeal from local to higher courts Made the tax system more equitable. People came to associate their king with justice and a national feeling began to grow. If he had taken the English territory in 1259, Treaty of Paris, he might have averted the 100 Years’ War. Instead he surrendered disputed territory on the borders of Gascony to Henry III. Remained neutral during the struggle between the pope and Germany. His brother will be crowned king of Sicily taking territory away from the HRE and will end the Hohenstaufen dynasty. The French will gain the favor of the Pope through this. More moral than the pope he was respected throughout Europe. French society and culture became an example to all of Europe. Will continue into the modern period. Northern France became showcase of monastic reform, chivalry and Gothic art/architecture. Great thinkers like Aquinas and Bonaventure lived during this time. By the 1250’s the Albigenses (Cathars) were beaten and the Langue d’Oc was annexed. Did sponsor the French Inquisition. Led two French Crusades against the Muslims. He was captured during the first and ransomed out of Egypt. Died of a fever during the second. Will receive sainthood!

Medieval Germany

Review of Germany Saxon Kings 919-1002 Salian Kings 1002-1125
Kings focused on prestige and waring against invaders Salian Kings 1039 Henry III created the Imperial Church and taking privileges away from nobility Henry IV investiture controversy His successors lost control over the church and elected weak kings by 1125 Concordat of Worms 1122 By middle of 12th century Germany was ruled by weak kings. Disorganized and disunited. Extra teaching notes… Latin Europe shaped by two opposing forces: 1. Economic and cultural ideas from the Mediterranean such as cities, intellectual innovation 2. Political leadership from the norther continent: monarchies of England, France, and the HRE pushed boundaries into the south. They were drawn by the trade of Italy and the Papal court. England, France, and HRE were the leading powers of the time from 11th -13th centuries. (High Middle Ages). Kings and princes (north) still dominated the scene but kings wouldn’t have complete control until the end of the High Middle Ages as they began to consolidate power. The northern kingdoms provided the bulk of crusaders. They extended power south into the Mediterranean. The HRE always faced struggles with powerful land princes and communes. Constantly fighting to strengthen the Empire. It has never been easy to say just where or what Germany is. Most of its history his has been both an idea and a confederation of peoples and lands. It was controlled by monarchs of various backgrounds which would intermarry with other kingdoms. Eventually in the late 1800’s the people being ruled by the Prussian monarchy decided that they wanted an ethnic king. Otto von Bismarck helped to unit Germany after gaining territories away from other kingdoms such as France (Franco-Prussian War) and Austria. Germans were spread out and ruled by many different kings. What destroyed Germany were the expansion into Italy and the papal entanglements and the inability of the German dynasties to produce heirs. HRE claimed power over the northern part of Italy since the 900’s (even back to Charlemagne). The high point of Germany rule would come around 1200 when the Hohenstaufen dynasty acquired the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples (would still be the kingdom of two sicilies until well into the 1800s with the unification of Italy!) Review: France had to intermarry to gain control. France had control over England after the Norman Invasion. Henry II had control of territory in both France and England. Charles the Bald in west, Lothair in middle, and Louis the German in the east. Feudalism began in the 10th century (had beginnings in patron-client relationship) and slightly during the Carolingian Dynasty but feudalism didn’t form securely until after the Norman Invasion in England, Louis the German and his successors managed to preserve the East Frankish Kingdom and created the possibility of an independent German kingdom. The boundaries of Germany weren’t quite clear and would be determined in the future. The Rhine has sometimes been Germany's river, and sometimes its western boundary. No natural frontiers to the east and incipient Slavic states resented German advances into their territories. Consisted of several large duchies. Saxony, Franconia, Lorraine, Swabia, and Bavaria and more. All these people had distinctive historical traditions but their leaders or dukes were usually Frankish aristocrats appointed by the Carolingians. Dukes gained more and more power-which will come to a head with Henry IV. The Duchies had come out of the end of the Carolingian period when Europe fragmented without centralized control. German kings hadn’t appointed any of the Dukes and therefore couldn’t remove any of them. Sometimes the Saxons managed to get one or more of the dukes to sear homage to them as kings of Germany. But the dukes didn’t owe any specific service to the king. Not a feudal monarchy. The dukes had vassals but didn’t owe the king anything. Their land wasn’t gifted by the king. (Remember after 1066, feudalism with the gifting of land would happen in England) Henry of Saxony 919 (first Saxon king) was powerful and rich. Best hope of dealing with the Viking threats to the north. And the Magyar attacks in the east and south. Ruled for 2 decades and succeeded by his son, grandson and great-grandson all named Otto. A solid kingdom was created by constant warfare, control of the various duchies, and creating lots of prestige for the kings. The one thing that the kings did control was the church. The church saw the kings as divinely appointed and worked in harmony with the Carolingian rulers. They would have been richly rewarded for this (lay investiture). The Kings of Germany (Holy Roman Empire) beginning with Charlemagne had ruled over northern Italy (Lombards). For the most part though, Italy was on its own. In 844, Popes actually had to defend Rome themselves and then by 900’s the Papacy fell into it’s darkest period (pornacracy and simony). The papacy was given to the highest bidder and one woman Marozia, was at different times mother, wife, and mistress of various popes! Otto I made himself king of Italy and protector of the papacy. Later crowned emperor. He really only gained prestige though. Still not a lot of control over nobles. After the Saxons the Salian dynasty came to the throne. These rulers didn’t need to focus on invaders like the early Saxon kings and began to control the church (imperial church). He put so many people into the church to reform it, purify it. Henry III of Saxony in 1046, was confronted by a scandal of three people claiming to be pope he replaced them all and put his own there. Ironically, the reformers that Henry III had begun to place in the church objected to lay investiture. Attacked the imperial church of Germany and the prestige of the kings. Signaled that Rome was now taking the lead in church reform. Henry IV controlled no duchies, faced his duchy in open revolt, and had bishops who now didn’t owe him any allegiance. He feel into conflict with Gregory the Great or Gregory VII. Proud brilliant, inflexible, self-righteous man who though he understood perfectly well what was wrong with society in his day: the kings at too much power over the church. God had assigned leadership of the whole Christian world to the pope and kings existed to do the pope’s bidding. Rather than try to gain territorial rule, as the church had done in the 700’s, they just focused on gained control back of the church. Of course, Henry thought he had the divine right to rule including supervise the church in his sphere. Henry was excommunicated in 1076 and Gregory released his subjects from their pledges to Henry (they wanted to weaken him anyway). To prevent, a meeting to declare Henry unfit to be king, Henry met Gregory at Canossa in Tuscany January He stood in the snow before the castle and begged his forgiveness. As a priest, Gregory could not refuse Henry and that forgiveness restored the king to the church’s good graces and restored his subjects’ duty of allegiance. The Germans elected a new king…Gregory said HE would decide between the two rivals. After Gregory issued a definitive pronouncement against lay investiture, Henry’s propagandists unleashed a torrent of bitterly antipapal wiring, the first such campaign in European history to discredit Gregory. In 1080, after being excommunicated once more, Henry IV raced to Rome to chase Gregory out of the city. Gregory receives help from the local Normans who plunder the city. The locals chase Gregory out of the city and exile him. Henry decides to put a pope of his own there-who promptly crowned Henry emperor/king. He never recovered his political power however. 1122 Son Henry V had the Concordat of Worms. (Pope Calixtus) Pope’s chose the future clergy but in the presence of the king.. After the election the king could invest new bishop with secular offices. Died without heirs and Germany faced a succession of different nobles from different duchies (Saxony and Swabia).

Germany Hohenstaufen Empire
Frederick I 1152 Tried to incorporate Italy Peace of Constance Feudalism begins in Germany Encouraged nobility to have own dominion over their vassals-just pay homage to the king Give fiefs away to gain support Later kings Focus on Naples and Sicily Hohenstaufen Empire During the 12-13th centuries, England and France developed different but centralized kingdoms. England balanced the frights of the nobility against the kings and France created a more absolute kingship-and influenced the rest of Europe in art/culture. Germany was different. The HRE embraced Germany, Burgundy, and northern Italy by the mid-13th century. During the 13th century they will extend power into southern Italy and the blood feuding will last for 200 years and leave a legacy of fragmentation until 1872. The fight between the popes and the emperors was even worse under the Hohenstaufen Dynasty. Frederick I Barbarossa Strong, athletic, handsome, chivalrous and intelligent-grandest ruler of his generation! Fought in the Second Crusade He attempted to hold his empire together by invoking feudal bonds and was somewhat successful after his rival, Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony fell from power. His desire for control in Italy nearly ruined him though. Wanted to help the pope crush a communal movement in Rome in 1155. After resorting Pope Adrian IV to power he was crowned H.R.E and demanded northern Italy recognize his power. Milan protested. Wanted to control military roads, ports, waterways, tolls, coinage, vacant fiefs, fine, appointment of magistrates, control of mines and fisheries and salt works and construction of palaces. By 1157 Rome decided it regretted crowing him and fought for the next twenty years. Pope Alexander III, created an alliance between Sicily, Milan and himself he will protest against the growing power of Germany. Pope told him that Germany was a fief of Rome. Going a bit further than the settlement and division of power in the concordat of Worms. Throw back to Henry IV. Believed his authority came directly from God. Direct inheritance from the ancient Romans and Charlemagne himself. Wanted to restore his authority over the Lombard's like Charlemagne. Tried to extend his rule down to Italy. He besieged them into submission. After he left, the Lombard's formed a league to protect themselves incase he came again he did. They showed such courage however, that he agreed to rule them peacefully. He was a different dynasty then Henry III-V (Henry V died without heirs). Barbarossa no longer had much authority as he couldn’t choose clergy who would support him. He was forced to war in Italy for more wealth. In 1167 the Lombard League of Milan created to opposed him in Italy. The Lombards fought together and were able to withstand and keep Frederick out of Lombardy. Due to their courageous stance, in 1183 they reached a compromise called the Peace of Constance. Ended the hostilities and the Lombard cities had full rights of self-rule. He would later join the third Crusade but died accidently in a river. Legends says he lies asleep in the Salzburg hills and when raven cease to fly ‘round the mountain he will awake and bring to his old country the dawn of a golden age.

Germany Hohenstaufen Empire
Henry VI Takes over southern Italy and marries Sicilian heiress Otto IV Invades Sicily Innocent excommunicates and crowns new king Frederick II Unifies the two kingdoms of Sicily Habsburg Dynasty Henry VI In an effort to still break free of papal control he tries to gain control of Sicily a papal ally. The Norman ruler in 1186, allowed Frederick’s son, Henry VI, to marry the Norman heiress, Constance. This continues to distract rather than add to the German Empire but it did encircle the pope. Constance makes her son the ward of Pope Innocent III when she dies. Interregnum Due to instability after Henry VI’s death, the Pope tries to take control once more. However rival kings emerge. Duke Phillip of Swabia and Otto of Brunswick. Otto was crowned king first in 1198 and agreed to stay out of the hair of the Pope if the Pope would recognize him as the King of Germany. Philip also had himself crowned the same year. But by 1208, he was murdered. Otto IV Otto is officially crowned the emperor (ruler of Italy and Germany-not just a king of Germany) in 1209. But makes mistake by invading Sicily to plunder it. Innocent excommunicated him in 1211 and crowns someone else-another Frederick in 1212. Frederick II 1212- The French ally with the Pope and place Frederick, son of Constance. Crowned in 1212 as ruler of the Romans while Otto is still ruling. Philip Augustus ended the reign of Otto IV in the battle of Bouvines and 3 years later Frederick II was crowned emperor again. This Frederick agreed to not attempt to unite Italy and Germany (or not invade). He was Sicilian and now a ruler of both Sicily and Germany he is the first to try to unify Italy in 1231. He effectively created a permanently disunifiied Germany. Spent only 9 of his 38 years as emperor in Germany. Appeased the nobles in order to secure his title He appointed salaried officials to rule throughout the regions. Of course these would be loyal to him. He was excommunicated several times from the popes. Rather a man of his times: both secular and Christian. Devoted to astrology and saints. Influenced by Norman, papal, and Byzantine ideas. Had Jews, Arabs, and dancing girls in his court. The Pope came to view him as the anti-Christ. Pope continued to organize the nobles against Frederick II. When he died in 1250, the German monarchy died with him. The boles established their own electoral college in 1257 which will control the succession. Signals the Pope’s rise into a papal monarchy now that it didn’t have Germany to oppose it. Habsburg Dynasty In 1273, Rudolf of Habsburg would be elected to be king of Germany. He failed to establish his rule but later the Habsburgs would occupy the throne from and by other successors of the family until 1918. (The HRE always faced struggles with powerful land princes and communes. Constantly fighting to strengthen the Empire. Charles IV will outlaw German communes in 1315 with his Golden Bull of only a few survived for centuries (Frankfurt, Nuremburg, Hamburg).)

Medieval Spain and Italy

Review of Early Spain Celts, Iberians, Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, Muslims Spain independent caliphate by 758 Est. al Andalus 1002 Cordoba began to break up and a tiny of Muslim realms King Sancho I launched offensive against Muslims-called Reconquista until 15th century Celts, Iberians, Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths, Muslims Spain independent caliphate by 758 Est. al Andalus 1002 Cordoba began to break up and a tiny of Muslim realms King Sancho I launched offensive against Muslims-called Reconquista until 15th century Alfonso 1085 captured Muslim stronghold in Toledo. The warrior El Cid helped conquer it. He was a mercenary who traded places on either side depending on who he wished to side with. However, the Muslims received help from North Africa and the Reconquista was halted. Feudalism began in 12 century but the Reconquista was the unify factor in Spain.

Spain Spain 1160 Reconquista stalled until Pope Innocent III stirred up crusader zeal 1212 victory against Las Navas de Tolosa was a turning point Great naval power and economic Strong institutions Professional officers in government Cortes Representative assembly made of urban nobles forges alliance between king and towns Four territories Muslim: Valencia and Granada Christian: Portugal, Castile and Aragon

Italy Many small divided kingdoms
Charlemagne considered himself King of the Franks and the Lombard's (northern Germanic area in Italy) Lothair, Charlemagne’s grandson, controlled northern Italy Germany was highly involved in Italian and Papal affairs (Charlemagne crowned by pope and Otto crowned king of Italy) German bishops saw the king as divinely appointed-they chose clergy rather than the church Henry III began to extend more influence over the church affairs Normans were settled in southern Italy and Sicily Southern Italy also controlled by Byzantines, Muslims, and locals Pope Gregory will call on the Normans in the south to help him defeat Henry IV. The Normans sack and destroy Rome instead and the local people oust the Pope. Communes in the North: reversed feudalism. People chose the leaders. In each commune (village) there were about 4-20 consuls or leaders. They worked with the local assembly to vote on matters. Refused papal and imperial over lordship. Italy was never unified with a king until the late 1800’s!

Italy Communes Investiture Controversy Peace of Constance
Chartered towns with independent government for protection Investiture Controversy Italy began breaking away Peace of Constance Holy Roman Empire left Italian communes Review: Charlemagne controlled the Lombard area and called himself the ruler of both the Franks and the Lombards Lothair considered himself the king of those areas as well. Normans controlled the south. The Communes were cities turned into self-governing corporations. It began in northern Italy which had the most urban population. Most of the time these communes were cities few in France and England were rural. Communes spread to France, Germany and Spain in the early 1100’s. Communes developed with the common people. They swore and oath to protect each other in times of trouble and maintain peace. The communes in England were more craftsmen and merchant guilds and monasteries. England was the only kingdom highly centralized at that time so the king had exerted more control. France also began to exert more control by the early 12th century. The Holy roman Empire would be highly decentralized and its communes became self-governing entities. Really the only nations ever formed until the late 1800’s were Spain, France, and England. East of France would remain in “Empires” not nations. The communes didn’t follow the basics of feudalism. Church and king didn’t always agree with how the communes solved problems (threat of revenge and eye for an eye-but the church was content with the result of peace). King Henry III of Germany the first Salian King, began to try to control the church and extend control into Italy-copy the Carolingians. Development of Italian communes in the 12 century: Each Italian commune constituted an entity unto itself. The late 1100’s the consular communes were still governed by oligarchies of men whose wealth and power came from land trade, and industry. Merchant interest however were gaining prominence at the expense of the landed people. By the late 1100’s the feudal monarchies were breaking away due to the investiture controversy and the Peace of Constance. Frederick I also extended power into Italy, 1155, which ultimately weakened the German Empire eventually. Milan led the Lombards to free themselves from Frederick of Germany and other communes in Italy also were forming into powerful communes with some like Venice conquering extra territory (1/4 of the Byzantine!). Peace of Constance 1183 left Italian cities free to continue their own Political evolution. (The HRE always faced struggles with powerful land princes and communes. Constantly fighting to strengthen the Empire. Charles IV will outlaw German communes in 1315 with his Golden Bull of only a few survived for centuries (Frankfurt, Nuremburg, Hamburg).) The introduction of the Podesta, city manager helped to decrease the tension in Italy. He would be held accountable at the end of his term in office. Came from outside of the city. Competent in administration but also in military leadership. The southern part of Italy was contested by the Spanish and the French as well as the Muslims, Normans, and Germans.

Rise of Kingdoms, Crusades, and Papal Conflict

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Rise of Kingdoms, Crusades, and Papal Conflict

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