1. What Are the Constraints to Inclusive Growth in Zambia?
Elena Ianchovichina and Susanna Lundström
Employment and Shared Growth Workshop, Oxford
March 16, 2008

3. Income increases through productive employment Poverty Reduction
Economic
Growth
Self-employed
Wage-employed
Business Environment
Analysis
Employability
Analysis
Viewed from the perspective of the poor as productive actors…

4. Three Main Parts
The overall dynamics and what it tells us about the potential in different sectors
Growth-Poverty Pattern, Sector Dynamics and Productivity Dynamics
Identifying the productive activities and resources of the poor
Going through the extended tree with the objective of increasing in a sustainable way the income of the poor
Given the characteristics and future opportunities of the poor identified in step one and two.

5. Increased and less volatile growth rates
Introduction

6. Development driven by discrete events or potentially sustainable growth?

7. Loans to the private sector

8. Rural poverty reduction not responsive to growth

9. Inverse relation between productivity levels/growth and employment levels
Paths out of poverty has mainly been through new employment opportunities in low-cost urban areas, or higher returns in other urban areas
Productivity growth has been on the rise except in agriculture where also employment opportunities has stagnated

10. What are the sources of income for the rural poor in Zambia?
Most rural poor are smallholder subsistence farmers

11. What are the sources of income for the urban poor in Zambia?
Most urban poor are employed in informal businesses
and rely on multiple activities as a source of income

12. Any reasons to focus on agriculture?
Evidence that there is potential for productivity improvement in agriculture
Even a sizable increase in employment in urban industries will result in relatively few urban jobs

13. Implication of the booming mining sector
The capital intensive nature implies that few new jobs are created
Adverse REER effects on the competitiveness and job opportunities of the tradable sectors

14. Look for constraint to inclusive growth through:
Self as well as wage employment
Agriculture as well as non-agriculture activities
Up-coming data on employment and additional analysis may help to narrow down further

15. Employability Analysis: Education, Health
Income increases through
productive employment
Poverty Reduction
Economic
Growth
Self-employed
Wage-employed
Business Environment
Analysis
Employability
Analysis:
Education, Health
Viewed from the perspective of the poor as productive actors…

16. Is education a major constraint for the poor as individuals?
Percentage of households with access to education facilities within five kilometers
Major difference in mean years of education between the rich and poor households in urban areas, and limited access to higher education in rural areas

17. Is health a major constraint for the poor?
HIV/AIDS costs almost 1 percent in GDP growth per year
Prevalence rates are high: 17% of working age population in 2005 compared to the SSA average of 6%.
High prevalence rates combined with poor health care provision and other diseases undermine
Labor stock and ability to provide labor;
Productivity of the work force;
Incentives for investment;

18. Business Environment Analysis
Income increases through
productive employment
Poverty Reduction
Economic
Growth
Self-employed
Wage-employed
Business Environment
Analysis
Employability
Analysis:
Education, Health
Viewed from the perspective of the poor as productive actors…

20. Is the cost of capital a binding constraint to firms’ investment and growth?

21. But, cost and access of capital differentials are sizable
Access and cost of capital varies with the size of the firm
In 2003, nearly 50 percent of larger firms had a loan, while only 19 percent of small firms had a loan
The cost of capital differential between large and small firms was more than 10 percentage points
Similar differentials existed between the cost of capital of exporters and non-exporters, domestic and foreign companies
Micro firms face even steeper constraints

22. What are the reasons for the poor access to and high cost of finance for small and micro firms?
Poor financial intermediation rather than low domestic savings or bad international finance
Domestic savings as a share of GDP climbed up from 6% in 1990s to 18.1% in 2006, a share higher than the SSA average
FDI and aid have been higher than the average for SSA and LICs both in 1990s and 2000s
However, there are signs of improvements: the percentage of people identifying the cost of finance as the main reason for their poverty status halved in the period

23. The majority of the poor cannot afford to obtain financing which brings us to the issue of returns of economic activity.

24. Do low social returns constrain income growth?
Zambia is well endowed with natural resources
Landlocked geographic position:
Pros: Serves as an import tax protecting domestic import-competing industries; borders 8 countries and plays an active role in regional trade
Cons: reaching global markets and realizing economies of scale is a problem
Affects ability to export bulky low–value products (e.g. farm products)
Requires well-developed air transport and an emphasis on high value, low weight and volume goods

25. Access to air transport is low for Zambia’s level of per capita income

26. Are infrastructure and basic services a binding constraint to income growth?
High domestic transport costs due to poor domestic road condition and high fuel:
affect the ability of rural residents to access markets;
The reasons for poor access is not always because of limited supply (e.g. electricity), but because of industry structures and interests
Poor quality and expensive basic services undermine the competitiveness of firms and slow down job creation

27. Cost-structure: firm-level averages
Source: Eifert, Gelb, and Ramachandran (2005)

28. Connectivity services Mobile rates per minute
Source: Mattoo and Payton (2007)

30. Is the macroeconomic environment a binding constraint to shared growth
Is the macroeconomic environment a binding constraint to shared growth? Exchange rate developments
Macroeconomic situation has improved since 2003
Single digit inflation in 2006
Favorable terms of trade
But, the sharp real appreciation of the Kwacha since 2005 is a major problem:
Factors include:
Debt relief and scaling up of aid
FDI into mining
Strong export performance
Tight monetary policy
Negative impacts on some sectors and employment; threatens the progress made in diversifying the export base and jumpstarting non-traditional exports

32. Are property rights over land a major constraint to income growth?
Customary land arrangements with limited transfer possibilities are dominant, with only 6-15% of land under statutory tenure
The land system is not perceived as a binding constraint to shared growth
Land is abundant – only 40% of arable land is used
Most smallholders who demand more land get land from their chiefs (only 4% of respondents mentioned lack of land as a reason for poverty)
Despite small plot sizes, a typical household does not have capability to cultivate more land
The system creates risks to future returns on investments
Lack of serviced land with access to infrastructure is a perceived binding constraint to operations implying not land, but rural infrastructure is a bottleneck

33. Is regulatory uncertainty and government interventions an obstacle to shared growth?
Regulatory uncertainty is the fourth most binding constraint to firms’ operations
Most of firm owners (70 percent) think that officials’ interpretation of regulations is inconsistent and unpredictable
Problem is especially acute in agriculture
Fertilizer subsidy program
Last minute contracts push up the cost of the input
Program not well targeted opens opportunities for rent seeking
Program is expensive (accounts for 50% of the budget earmarked for agriculture, compared to only 3% for irrigation and other rural infrastructure)

34. Is governance a constraint?

36. Are market failures binding constraints for income growth?
Firms need services requiring simultaneous, large scale investments in:
basic infrastructure and connectivity services which ensure access to inputs and foreign markets;
marketing, state-of-the-art technology, and product quality information services
Might be a development trap:
No incentives for private investor before a certain level of economic activity
Especially severe in sparsely populated countries

37. Rural-urban differentials in connectivity service provision
Poor access and high cost of basic services are major constraints to growth
Rural areas are at a disadvantage relative to urban areas
Number of households with access to facilities within 5 km
Farm level productivity is negatively correlated with weak service performance
Examples where there were positive coordination externalities (e.g. outgrower schemes)

39. Bindings constraints to shared growth in Zambia
Lack of positive coordination externalities (rural-urban connectivity)
Poor government effectiveness
Regulatory uncertainty and government interventions (stop doing harm before doing good, especially severe in agriculture)
Real exchange rate appreciation (international connectivity)
Access to post-primary education and health for the poor

40. end

41. Appendix: Incidence of poverty by stratum (%)

42. Appendix: Number of people employed by stratum