1. Conservatism & Russian International Relations Theory

2. Most Influential Russian IR Theorists
Nikolai Danilevsky ( )
Konstantin Leontyev ( )
Aleksandr Panarin ( )

3. Binary nature of conservatism
Conservativism as ideology:
Belief in universal values – justice, conscience, family, patriotism, etc.
Conservatism as worldview:
Positional and organic
Particularist – each nation is different; no universal values
Inevitable tension between universalism and particularism

4. Origins of Russian conservatism
Arose in early 19th Century
In part an offshoot of Western European conservatism
Reaction to Enlightenment rationalism, French revolution etc.
In part also a reaction to process of Westernization
This leads to desire to develop Russian culture and identity
Which requires a philosophy which asserts nations’ right to distinctive development
Russian conservatism therefore inherently particularist

5. But … Russian conservatives often very Westernized
See Russia’s future as connected to West
Mission to save the West
Russia’s distinctive feature = Russian Orthodoxy
But Orthodoxy is universalist
Thus, Russian conservatism is also universalist.

6. Reconciling the universal and the particular
Russia is the repository of universal truth
Must therefore resist West and defend its sovereignty and independent identity for the sake of mankind as a whole, including the West.
The universal good is served by national diversity
Rejection of universalism, but not of idea of universal good
Anti-universalism gives Russia a universal mission
Support for multipolar world
Based on sovereign nations which defend their right to separate development

7. The Slavophiles Influence of German Romanticism
Contributing to universal progress requires developing national particularities
Universal good is served by diversity
Konstantin Aksakov:
‘let all nationalities in the human world freely and clearly flower; only they will activate and energize the common labour of peoples. Long live every nationality!’
Aleksei Khomiakov:
‘History is calling Russia to take its place in the forefront of universal enlightenment.’

8. Dostoevsky Search for reconciliation
The particular doesn’t serve the universal
Rather, what is particular about Russia is its universality (all-humanity: vsechelovechestvo)

9. Dostoevsky’s letter to Grand Duke Aleksandr Aleksandrovich
We have forgotten that we … contain in ourselves as Russians the capacity perhaps to bring new light to the world, on the condition that our development is independent. … We have forgotten that all great nations displayed their great powers only to the extent that they were arrogant in their assessment of themselves, and precisely in this way they have benefited the world, and each of them has brought something into it, be it only a single ray of light, because they have remained themselves, proud and steady, arrogantly independent.

10. Nikolai Danilevsky ‘Russia and Europe’
Theory of civilizations or ‘cultural-historical types’
‘The principles of civilization for one cultural-historical type are not transferable to the peoples of another type’
Human progress depends upon diversity

11. Konstantin Leontyev – ‘Flowering Complexity’
Civilizational life-cycle
Primary simplicity
Flowering complexity
Secondary simplicity
Flowering complexity is the desired condition

12. Ivan Ilyin
‘There is no single, life-saving recipe for all times and all peoples.’
‘There is no single universally obligatory “Western culture” compared with which everything else is “darkness” or “barbarianism”.’
‘The grasses and the flowers in the field are diverse. The trees and the clouds are diverse. God’s garden is rich and beautiful; it has abundant forms, and glitters with colors and views.’

13. Eurasianism
‘The lands and peoples of the Russian Empire/Soviet Union form a natural whole
Russia is neither European nor Asian, but Eurasian
Trubetskoi: ‘efforts to achieve a universal human culture must be repudiated.’
Russia will in due course redeem the sins of the word

14. Lev Gumilyov Humanity is inevitably divided into ethnic groups (etnoi)
Etnoi can join to form superetnoi
Superetnoi are always in competition with each other
The peoples of the Soviet Union form a separate superetnoi from Europe
No etnos can claim that its values are superior to others
Praise of multicultural empires – anti-racism

15. Alexander Panarin Influenced by New Right
Alain de Benoist
Russian civilization can form the basis of a world civilization based on polyculturalism

16. Alexander Dugin Combination of Eurasianism and Geopolitics
Russia to forge a global alliance against US hegemony
Katechon
Russia as the nation which will shield the world against the Anti-Christ

17. Vadim Tsymbursky Island Russia
Russia will not seek to challenge US hegemony
Buffer zone – limitrophe states
‘Offensive isolationism’

18. ‘Young Conservatives’ – Boris Mezhuev
Civilizational Realism
1½ polar world
Need to recognize Russia as a distinct civilization
‘We both need to understand that the language of civilizational geopolitics guarantees Europe’s survival.’

19. ‘Young Conservatives’ – Mikhail Remizov
Rejection of idea of Russian mission to save world
Universalism ≠ universality
Russia needs allies, and so must find a message with universal appeal
That message is anti-universalism
Russia therefore should lead international movement against globalism and universalist claims of Western liberalism

20. Conservatism and the Russian state
State conservatism is very different from intellectual conservatism
Russian state rejects conservatives’ anti-globalism
But does share some of conservatives’ perspective
Conservative discourse commonplace among elites:
e.g. discourse of ‘civilizations’; idea of polyculturalism
Sergei Lavrov:
There are many development models … long-term success can only be achieved on the basis of movement to the partnership of civilizations based on respectful interaction of diverse cultures and religions.
Conservative ideas have seeped into public consciousness

21. Summary Russia is different from the West.
As a distinct civilization, Russia is in possession of certain truths which the West does not possess.
Western liberalism is not universally valid.
Different civilizations should follow their own path of development.
Flowering complexity, diversity, polyculturalism are to be encouraged.
World peace depends on recognition of civilizational difference.
This requires Russia to protect its sovereignty and push back against attempts to impose Western liberalism on the rest of the world.
In doing so, Russia not only defends its own interests but also acts for the benefit of the world as a whole.