Lab Practical Study Guide

Lab Practical Study Guide
A&P II Lab Practical Study Guide

Figure 27.1 Hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
Hypothalamic neurons in the paraventricular nuclei Neurons in the ventral hypothalamus Hypothalamic neurons in the supraoptic nuclei Optic chiasma Superior hypophyseal artery Infundibulum (connecting stalk) Hypothalamic- hypophyseal tract Hypophyseal portal system Primary capillary plexus Inferior hypophyseal artery Hypophyseal portal veins Neurohypophysis (storage area for hypothalamic hormones) Secondary capillary plexus Anterior pituitary Posterior pituitary Secretory cells of adenohypophysis Oxytocin ADH TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, GH, PRL Venule Venule

Figure 27.2 Human endocrine organs.
Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands (on dorsal aspect of thyroid gland) Thymus Adrenal glands Pancreas Ovary (female) Testis (male) 3

Figure 27.3a-c Microscopic anatomy of selected endocrine organs.
Colloid-filled follicles Follicular cells Pancreatic islet  cells (Glucagon- producing) Thyroid gland (360)  cells (Insulin- producing) Pancreatic acinar cells (exocrine) Oxyphil cells Pancreatic islet (205) Parathyroid cells Parathyroid gland (375) 4

Figure 27.3d-f Microscopic anatomy of selected endocrine organs.
Acidophils Capsule Chromophobe Zona glomerulosa Basophil Zona fasciculata Anterior pituitary (380) Zona reticularis Pituicytes Adrenal medulla Nerve fibers Adrenal gland (60) Posterior pituitary (345) 5

Figure 29-1 The composition of blood.
Plasma 55% Constituent Major Functions Formed elements 45% Solvent for carrying other substances; absorbs heat Number (per mm3 of blood) Cell type Functions Water Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Salts (electrolytes) Sodium Osmotic balance, pH buffering 4 – 6 million Transport oxygen and help transport carbon dioxide Potassium Calcium Magnesium Chloride Bicarbonate Leukocytes (white blood cells) 4800 – 10,800 Defense and immunity Plasma proteins Albumin Osmotic balance Fibrinogen Clotting of blood Lymphocyte Globulins Defense (antibodies) and lipid transport Basophil Eosinophil Substances transported by blood Neutrophil Monocyte Nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins) Waste products of metabolism (urea, uric acid) Respiratory gases (O2 and CO2) Platelets 150,000 – 400,000 Blood clotting Hormones

Eosinophil Lymphocyte Monocyte Platelets Neutrophils Erythrocytes
Figure Photomicrograph of a human blood smear stained with Wright’s stain (765). Eosinophil Lymphocyte Monocyte Platelets Neutrophils Erythrocytes 7

Neutrophil; multilobed nucleus Eosinophil; bilobed nucleus,
Figure Leukocytes. Neutrophil; multilobed nucleus Eosinophil; bilobed nucleus, red cytoplasmic granules Small lymphocyte; large spherical nucleus Basophil; bilobed nucleus, purplish-black cytomasmic granules Monocyte; kidney- shaped nucleus 8

Figure 29-9 Blood typing of ABO blood types.
Blood being tested Serum Anti-A Anti-B Type AB (contains antigens A and B) RBCs Type B (contains antigen B) Type A (contains antigen A) Type O (contains no antigen) 9

Table 29-1 Summary of Formed Elements of the Blood (1 of 3)

Figure 30.1 Location of the heart in the thorax.
Midsternal line Sternum 2nd rib Diaphragm PMI: Apical pulse sounds heard

Figure 30.2a Gross anatomy of the human heart.
Left common carotid artery Brachiocephalic trunk Left subclavian artery Superior vena cava Aortic arch Right pulmonary artery Ligamentum arteriosum Ascending aorta Left pulmonary artery Pulmonary trunk Left pulmonary veins Right pulmonary veins Auricle of left atrium Right atrium Circumflex artery Right coronary artery (in coronary sulcus) Left coronary artery (in coronary sulcus) Anterior cardiac vein Left ventricle Right ventricle Great cardiac vein Right marginal artery Anterior interventricular artery (in anterior interventricular sulcus) Small cardiac vein Inferior vena cava Apex 12

Figure 30.2c Gross anatomy of the human heart.
Aorta Superior vena cava Right pulmonary artery Left pulmonary artery Right pulmonary veins Left pulmonary veins Auricle of left atrium Right atrium Left atrium Inferior vena cava Great cardiac vein Coronary sinus Right coronary artery (in coronary sulcus) Posterior vein of left ventricle Posterior interventricular artery (in posterior interventricular sulcus) Left ventricle Middle cardiac vein Right ventricle Apex 13

Figure 30.2b Gross anatomy of the human heart.
Aorta Left pulmonary artery Superior vena cava Right pulmonary artery Left atrium Pulmonary trunk Left pulmonary veins Right atrium Mitral (bicuspid) valve Right pulmonary veins Fossa ovalis Aortic valve Pectinate muscles Pulmonary valve Tricuspid valve Left ventricle Right ventricle Papillary muscle Chordae tendineae Interventricular septum Trabeculae carneae Epicardium Inferior vena cava Myocardium Endocardium 14

Figure 30.2b Gross anatomy of the human heart.
Aorta Left pulmonary artery Superior vena cava Right pulmonary artery Left atrium Pulmonary trunk Left pulmonary veins Right atrium Mitral (bicuspid) valve Right pulmonary veins Fossa ovalis Aortic valve Pectinate muscles Pulmonary valve Tricuspid valve Left ventricle Right ventricle Papillary muscle Chordae tendineae Interventricular septum Trabeculae carneae Epicardium Inferior vena cava Myocardium Endocardium 15

Figure 30.4 The systemic and pulmonary circuits.
Capillary beds of lungs where gas exchange occurs Pulmonary Circuit Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary veins Aorta and branches Venae cavae Left atrium Right atrium Left ventricle Heart Right ventricle Systemic Circuit Capillary beds of all body tissues where gas exchange occurs Oxygen-rich, CO2-poor blood Oxygen-poor, CO2-rich blood 16

Figure 30.5 Coronary circulation.
Superior vena cava Aorta Pulmonary trunk Anastomosis (junction of vessels) Left atrium Left coronary artery Right atrium Right coronary artery Circumflex artery Left ventricle Right ventricle Anterior interventricular artery Right marginal artery Posterior interventricular artery The major coronary arteries Superior vena cava Anterior cardiac veins Great cardiac vein Coronary sinus Small cardiac vein Middle cardiac vein The major cardiac veins 17

Figure 30.7 Photomicrograph of cardiac muscle (665×).
Intercalated discs Sarcolemma Nucleus Cardiac muscle cells 18

Figure 31.1 The intrinsic conduction system of the heart.
Superior vena cava 1 The sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker) generates impulses. Internodal pathway Right atrium Left atrium 2 The impulses pause (0.1 sec) at the atriventricular (AV) node. Subendocardinal conducting network (Purkinje fibers) 3 The atrioventricular (AV) bundle connects the atria to the ventricles. The bundle branches conduct the impulses through the interventricular septum. 4 Inter- ventricular septum 5 The subendocardial conducting network depolarizes the contractile cells of both ventricles.

Figure 31.2 The normal electrocardiogram.
P T Q S QRS complex Time Scale: R small squares  0.04 sec 1 large square  0.20 sec 5 large squares  1.00 sec T P P-R interval S-T segment Q S Q-T interval 20

depolarization begins Impulse delayed at AV node Impulse passes to
Figure The sequence of excitation of the heart related to the deflection waves of an ECG tracing. SA node generates impulse; atrial depolarization begins Impulse delayed at AV node Impulse passes to heart apex; ventricular depolarization begins Ventricular depolarization complete SA node AV node Bundle branches Subendocardial conduction network R R R R P T P T P T P T Q Q Q Q S S S S 21

Figure 32.1 Generalized structure of arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Artery Vein Tunica intima Artery Endothelium Vein Subendothelial layer Internal elastic membrane Tunica media (smooth muscle and elastic fibers) External elastic membrane Tunica externa (collagen fibers) Vasa vasorum Valve Capillary network Lumen Lumen Basement membrane Capillary Endothelial cells

Figure 32.13 Circulation in fetus and newborn.
Aortic arch Newborn Superior vena cava Ductus arteriosus Ligamentum arteriosum Pulmonary artery Pulmonary veins Heart Lung Foramen ovale Fossa ovalis Liver Ductus venosus Ligamentum venosum Hepatic portal vein Umbilical vein Ligamentum teres Inferior vena cava Umbilicus Abdominal aorta Common iliac artery Umbilical arteries Medial umbilical ligaments Urinary bladder Umbilical cord Placenta High oxygenation Moderate oxygenation Low oxygenation Very low oxygenation 23

Figure 32.14 Hepatic portal circulation.
Hepatic veins Gastric veins Liver Spleen Hepatic portal vein Splenic vein Right gastroepiploic vein Inferior mesenteric vein Superior mesenteric vein Small intestine Large intestine Rectum 24

(mid-to-late diastole)
Figure Summary of events occurring in the heart during the cardiac cycle. Left heart QRS P T P Electrocardiogram 1st 2nd Heart sounds 120 Dicrotic notch 80 Aorta Pressure (mm Hg) Left ventricle 40 Atrial systole Left atrium 120 EDV Ventricular volume (ml) SV 50 ESV Atrioventricular valves Open Closed Open Aortic and pulmonary valves Closed Open Closed Phase 1 2a 2b 3 1 Left atrium Right atrium Left ventricle Right ventricle Ventricular filling Atrial contraction Isovolumetric contraction phase Ventricular ejection phase Isovolumetric relaxation Ventricular filling 1 2a 2b 3 Ventricular filling (mid-to-late diastole) Ventricular systole (atria in diastole) Early diastole

at right sternal margin
Figure Areas of the thorax where heart sounds can best be detected. Aortic valve: sounds are heard in 2nd intercostal space at right sternal margin Pulmonary valve: sounds are heard in 2nd intercostal space at left sternal margin 1 2 3 4 5 Mitral valve: sounds are heard over heart apex, in 5th intercostal space in line with middle of clavicle 6 7 Tricuspid valve: sounds are typically heard in right sternal margin of 5th intercostal space; variations include over sternum or over left sternal margin in 5th intercostal space 26

Figure 33.3 Body sites where the pulse is most easily palpated.
Superficial temporal artery Facial artery Common carotid artery Brachial artery Radial artery Femoral artery Popliteal artery Posterior tibial artery Dorsalis pedis artery 27

Figure 33.9 Procedure for measuring blood pressure.
120 systolic 70 diastolic (to be measured) Pressure in cuff above 120; no sounds audible Pressure in cuff below 120, but above 70 Pressure in cuff below 70; no sounds audible 120 mm Hg 120 mm Hg Rubber cuff inflated with air 70 mm Hg Sounds audible in stethoscope Brachial artery closed Brachial artery 28

Lab Practical 2 Study Guide
A&P II Lab Practical 2 Study Guide

Figure 32.3a Arteries of the head, neck, and brain.
Basilar artery Ophthalmic artery Vertebral artery Branches of the external carotid artery Internal carotid artery Superficial temporal artery External carotid artery Maxillary artery Occipital artery Common carotid artery Facial artery Lingual artery Thyrocervical trunk Superior thyroid artery Costocervical trunk Larynx Subclavian artery Thyroid gland (overlying trachea) Clavicle (cut) Axillary artery Brachiocephalic trunk Internal thoracic artery 30

Figure 32.4 Arteries of the right upper limb and thorax.
Vertebral artery Common carotid arteries Thyrocervical trunk Right subclavian artery Costocervical trunk Suprascapular artery Left subclavian artery Thoracoacromial artery Brachiocephalic trunk Axillary artery Posterior intercostal arteries Posterior circumflex humeral artery Anterior circumflex humeral artery Anterior intercostal artery Subscapular artery Internal thoracic artery Brachial artery Lateral thoracic artery Deep artery of arm Thoracic aorta Common interosseous artery Radial artery Ulnar artery Deep palmar arch Superficial palmar arch Digital arteries 31

Figure 32.5a Arteries of the abdomen.
Esophagus Liver (cut) Diaphragm Inferior vena cava Celiac trunk Left gastric artery Common hepatic artery Stomach Hepatic artery proper Splenic artery Gastroduodenal artery Left gastroepiploic artery Right gastric artery Gallbladder Spleen Pancreas (major portion lies posterior to stomach) Right gastroepiploic artery Duodenum Abdominal aorta Superior mesenteric artery 32

Figure 32.5b Arteries of the abdomen.
Hiatus (opening) for inferior vena cava Diaphragm Hiatus (opening) for esophagus Inferior phrenic artery Adrenal (suprarenal) gland Middle suprarenal artery Celiac trunk Renal artery Kidney Superior mesenteric artery Abdominal aorta Gonadal (testicular or ovarian) artery Lumbar arteries Inferior mesenteric artery Ureter Median sacral artery Common iliac artery 33

Figure 32.5c Arteries of the abdomen.
Celiac trunk Superior mesenteric artery Transverse colon Abdominal aorta Branches of the superior mesenteric artery Inferior mesenteric artery Middle colic artery Intestinal arteries Branches of the inferior mesenteric artery Right colic artery Ileocolic artery Left colic artery Sigmoidal arteries Ascending colon Superior rectal artery Right common iliac artery Descending colon Ileum Cecum Sigmoid colon Appendix Rectum 34

Figure 32.6 Arteries of the right pelvis and lower limb.
Common iliac artery Internal iliac artery Superior gluteal artery External iliac artery Deep artery of thigh Obturator artery Medial circumflex femoral artery Lateral circumflex femoral artery Femoral artery Adductor hiatus Popliteal artery Popliteal artery Anterior tibial artery Anterior tibial artery Fibular artery Posterior tibial artery Posterior tibial artery Fibular artery Lateral plantar artery Dorsalis pedis artery Medial plantar artery Arcuate artery Dorsalis pedis artery (from top of foot) Dorsal metatarsal arteries Plantar arch 35

Figure 32.8 Veins of the right pelvis and lower limb.
Common iliac vein Internal iliac vein External iliac vein Inguinal ligament Femoral vein Great saphenous vein (superficial) Great saphenous vein Popliteal vein Popliteal vein Small saphenous vein Anterior tibial vein Fibular vein Fibular vein Small saphenous vein (superficial) Anterior tibial vein Dorsalis pedis vein Posterior tibial vein Dorsal venous arch Plantar veins Deep plantar arch Dorsal metatarsal veins Digital veins Anterior view Posterior view 36

Hepatic veins Inferior phrenic vein Renal veins Inferior vena cava
Figure Venous drainage of abdominal organs not drained by the hepatic portal vein. Hepatic veins Inferior phrenic vein Renal veins Inferior vena cava Left suprarenal vein Right suprarenal vein Left ascending lumbar vein Lumbar veins Right gonadal vein Left gonadal vein Common iliac vein External iliac vein Internal iliac vein 37

Figure 32.10 Venous drainage of the head, neck, and brain.
Ophthalmic vein Superficial temporal vein Facial vein Superior sagittal sinus Occipital vein Falx cerebri Posterior auricular vein Inferior sagittal sinus External jugular vein Cavernous sinus Vertebral vein Straight sinus Internal jugular vein Confluence of sinuses Superior and middle thyroid veins Transverse sinuses Brachioce- phalic vein Sigmoid sinus Subclavian vein Jugular foramen Superior vena cava Right internal jugular vein 38

Figure 32.11 Veins of the thorax and right upper limb.
Internal jugular vein Brachiocephalic veins External jugular vein Right subclavian vein Left subclavian vein Axillary vein Superior vena cava Brachial vein Azygos vein Cephalic vein Accessory hemiazygos vein Basilic vein Hemiazygos vein Posterior intercostals Inferior vena cava Median cubital vein Ascending lumbar vein Median antebrachial vein Basilic vein Cephalic vein Ulnar vein Radial vein Deep venous palmar arch Superficial venous palmar arch Digital veins 39

Figure 32.14 Hepatic portal circulation.
Hepatic veins Gastric veins Liver Spleen Hepatic portal vein Splenic vein Right gastroepiploic vein Inferior mesenteric vein Superior mesenteric vein Small intestine Large intestine Rectum 40

Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone Frontal sinus Sphenoidal sinus
Figure 36.1c Structures of the upper respiratory tract (midsagittal section). Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone Frontal sinus Sphenoidal sinus Nasal cavity Nasal conchae (superior, middle, and inferior) Posterior nasal aperture Nasopharynx Pharyngeal tonsil Nasal vestibule Opening of pharyngotympanic tube Nostril Hard palate Nasal meatuses (superior, middle, and inferior) Uvula Oropharynx Palatine tonsil Soft palate Isthmus of the fauces Tongue Lingual tonsil Laryngopharynx Larynx Hyoid bone Epiglottis Esophagus Vestibular fold Thyroid cartilage Vocal fold Trachea Cricoid cartilage Thyroid gland 42

Figure 36.2 Structure of the larynx.
Epiglottis Body of hyoid bone Thyrohyoid membrane Body of hyoid bone Thyrohyoid membrane Fatty pad Cuneiform cartilage Thyroid cartilage Vestibular fold (false vocal cord) Corniculate cartilage Arytenoid cartilage Laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple) Thyroid cartilage Arytenoid muscles Vocal fold (true vocal cord) Cricoid cartilage Cricothyroid ligament Cricothyroid ligament Cricotracheal ligament Cricotracheal ligament Tracheal cartilages Anterior superficial view Sagittal view; anterior surface to the right 43

Figure 36.3 Structures of the lower respiratory tract.
Trachea Superior lobe of left lung Left main (primary) bronchus Alveolar duct Alveoli Lobar (secondary) bronchus Respiratory bronchioles Segmental (tertiary) bronchus Superior lobe of right lung Inferior lobe of left lung Terminal bronchiole Alveolar sac Middle lobe of right lung Inferior lobe of right lung 44

Figure Diagram of the relationship between the alveoli and pulmonary capillaries involved in gas exchange. Red blood cell Nucleus of type I alveolar cell Alveolar pores Capillary O2 Capillary CO2 Macrophage Alveolus Endothelial cell nucleus Alveolus Alveolar epithelium Respiratory membrane Fused basement membranes of the alveolar epithelium and the capillary endothelium Capillary endothelium Alveoli (gas-filled air spaces) Red blood cell in capillary Type II alveolar cell Type I alveolar cell 45

Figure 36.5a Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.
Intercostal muscle Trachea Rib Thymus Parietal pleura Lung Pleural cavity Apex of lung Visceral pleura Right superior lobe Horizontal fissure Right middle lobe Left superior lobe Oblique fissure Oblique fissure Right inferior lobe Heart (in mediastinum) Left inferior lobe Diaphragm Cardiac notch Base of lung 46

Figure 36.5b Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.
Left superior lobe Apex of lung Oblique fissure Pulmonary artery Left inferior lobe Left main bronchus Hilum of lung Pulmonary vein Aortic impression Cardiac impression Oblique fissure Lobules 47

Figure 36.5c Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.
Posterior Vertebra Esophagus (in mediastinum) Root of lung at hilum Right lung Left main bronchus Parietal pleura Left pulmonary artery Left pulmonary vein Visceral pleura Left lung Pleural cavity Thoracic wall Pulmonary trunk Pericardial membranes Heart (in mediastinum) Anterior mediastinum Sternum Anterior 48

Figure 36.6 Tissue composition of the tracheal wall.
Posterior Mucosa Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Lamina propria (connective tissue) Esophagus Submucosa Trachealis muscle Lumen of trachea Seromucous gland in submucosa Hyaline cartilage Adventitia Anterior 49

Figure 36.7 Microscopic structure of a bronchiole and alveoli.
Pseudostratified epithelium Smooth muscle Lumen of bronchiole Lamina propria Respiratory bronchiole Alveolar pores Alveolar duct Alveoli Alveolar sac 50

Figure D3.1 Incisions to be made in opening the ventral body cavity of a cat.
2 or 2 3 Diaphragm 3 1 4 4 Incision

Figure D3.2 Ventral body cavity organs of the cat.
Trachea Right subclavian vein Left lung (apical lobe) Thymus Brachiocephalic artery Aortic arch Parietal pericardium (cut) Pulmonary trunk Heart Diaphragm Liver Gallbladder Stomach Duodenum (initial portion of small intestine) Greater omentum (cut) Transverse colon (portion of large intestine) Spleen Mesentery Small intestine Colon (descending) 52

Figure D4.2 Arterial system of the cat.
External carotid artery Larynx Internal carotid artery Right common carotid artery Left common carotid artery Vertebral artery Radial artery Ulnar artery Subscapular artery Thyrocervical trunk Brachial artery Ventral thoracic artery Axillary artery Long thoracic artery Costocervical trunk Left subclavian artery Internal thoracic (mammary) artery Left pulmonary artery Pulmonary trunk Right subclavian artery Intercostal arteries Brachiocephalic artery Descending thoracic aorta Aortic arch Celiac trunk Edge of diaphragm Adrenolumbar artery Superior mesenteric artery Adrenal gland Descending abdominal aorta Inferior mesenteric artery Iliolumbar artery Renal artery Right external iliac artery Gonadal artery (testicular or ovarian) Femoral artery Left internal iliac artery Saphenous artery Sural artery Popliteal artery Median sacral artery (caudal artery in tail) Posterior tibial artery Anterior tibial artery 53

Figure D4.4 Venous system of the cat.
Anterior facial vein Transverse scapular vein Posterior facial vein Right vertebral vein External jugular vein Axillary vein Internal jugular vein Radial vein Subscapular vein Ulnar vein Cephalic vein Median cubital vein Subclavian vein Brachial vein Brachiocephalic veins Internal thoracic (mammary) vein Superior vena cava (precava) Azygos vein Inferior vena cava (postcava) Hepatic veins Diaphragm Kidney Adrenal gland Renal veins Adrenolumbar vein Gonadal vein (testicular or ovarian) Gonadal vein (testicular or ovarian) Iliolumbar vein Common iliac vein External iliac vein Popliteal vein Internal iliac vein Great saphenous vein Femoral vein Deep femoral vein Anterior tibial vein Posterior tibial vein 54

Figure D4.3 Cat dissected to reveal major blood vessels.
Transverse jugular vein Left and right common carotid arteries External jugular vein Subclavian vein Right subclavian artery Axillary vein Brachiocephalic vein Left subclavian artery Superior vena cava (precava) Brachiocephalic artery Heart Descending thoracic aorta Hepatic veins Celiac trunk Inferior vena cava (postcava) Superior mesenteric artery Adrenolumbar artery and vein Renal artery and vein Descending abdominal aorta Gonadal artery Common iliac vein Inferior mesenteric artery Iliolumbar artery and vein Internal iliac vein External iliac artery Internal iliac artery Femoral artery and vein External iliac vein 55

Figure D4.5b Hepatic portal circulation of the cat.
Liver Gastrosplenic vein Hepatic portal vein Inferior vena cava Duodenum Left splenic vein Pancreas Anterior and posterior pancreaticoduodenal veins Spleen Right splenic vein Superior (cranial) mesenteric vein Colon Small intestine (cut) 56

Figure D6.1 External nares, oral cavity, and pharynx of the cat.
Hard palate Soft palate Oropharynx Opening into nasopharynx Laryngopharynx

Figure D6.2 Respiratory system of the cat.
Hyoid bone Larynx Epiglottis Thyroid cartilage Trachea Cricoid cartilage Thymus Thyroid gland Lobes of right lung Lobes of left lung • Anterior • Anterior • Middle • Middle • Posterior • Posterior • Mediastinal Heart Diaphragm Liver 58

Figure D6.4 Photograph of the respiratory system of the cat.
Anterior facial vein Larynx Posterior facial vein Thyroid gland Left external jugular vein Trachea Left common carotid artery Left subclavian vein Superior vena cava (precava) Thymus Right ventricle of heart Left ventricle of heart Lungs Diaphragm 59

Parotid gland Mouth (oral cavity) Sublingual gland Salivary glands*
Figure The human digestive system: alimentary tube and accessory organs. Parotid gland Mouth (oral cavity) Sublingual gland Salivary glands* Tongue* Submandibular gland Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Pancreas* Liver* (Spleen) Gallbladder* Transverse colon Descending colon Duodenum Small intestine Jejunum Ascending colon Ileum Large intestine Cecum Sigmoid colon Rectum Appendix Anus Anal canal

Figure 38.2 Basic structural pattern of the alimentary canal wall.
Intrinsic nerve plexuses Myenteric nerve plexus Submucosal nerve plexus Glands in submucosa Mucosa Epithelium Lamina propria Muscularis mucosae Submucosa Muscularis externa Longitudinal muscle Circular muscle Serosa Epithelium (mesothelium) Connective tissue Nerve Gland in mucosa Artery Lumen Duct of gland outside alimentary canal Mesentery Vein Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue Lymphatic vessel 61

Figure 38.3 Anterior view of the oral cavity.
Upper lip Gingivae (gums) Superior labial frenulum Palatine raphe Palatoglossal arch Hard palate Palatopharyngeal arch Soft palate Uvula Posterior wall of oropharynx Palatine tonsil Tongue Lingual frenulum Sublingual fold with openings of sublingual ducts Opening of submandibular duct Oral vestibule Gingivae (gums) Lower lip Inferior labial frenulum 62

Figure 38.4 Sagittal view of the head showing oral cavity and pharynx.
Hard palate Soft palate Oral cavity Uvula Palatoglossal arch Palatine tonsil Oropharynx Lingual tonsil Epiglottis Laryngopharynx Tongue Hyoid bone Esophagus Trachea 63

Figure 38.5a Anatomy of the stomach.
Cardial part Fundus Esophagus Muscularis externa Serosa Longitudinal layer Circular layer Body Oblique layer Lumen Lesser curvature Rugae of mucosa Greater curvature Pyloric antrum Pyloric sphincter (valve) at pylorus Pyloric canal Duodenum 64

Figure 38.5d Anatomy of the stomach.
Gastric pits Surface epithelium (mucous cells) Gastric pit Mucous neck cells Parietal cell (HCl) Gastric gland Chief cell (pepsinogen) Enteroendocrine cell 65

Figure 38.6 Histology of selected regions of the stomach and gastroesophageal junction.
Gastric glands Muscularis mucosae Mucosa Submucosa Oblique layer Circular layer Muscularis externa Longitudinal layer Stratified squamous epithelium of esophagus Gastro- esophageal junction Simple columnar epithelium Simple columnar epithelium of stomach Lamina propria Gastric pit Gastric glands 66

Figure Structural modifications of the small intestine that increase its surface area for digestion and absorption. Vein carrying blood to hepatic portal vessel Microvilli (brush border) Muscle layers Lumen Circular folds Absorptive cells Villi Lacteal Goblet cell Absorptive cells Villus Blood capillaries Mucosa- associated lymphoid tissue Entero- endocrine cells Intestinal crypt Venule Muscularis mucosae Lymphatic vessel Duodenal gland Submucosa Intestinal crypt Goblet cells 67

Villus Simple columnar epithelium Lamina propria Intestinal crypt
Figure Histology of selected regions of the small and large intestines. Villus Simple columnar epithelium Lamina propria Intestinal crypt Lumen Muscularis mucosae Duodenal glands Goblet cells in epithelium Lamina propria Villus Muscularis mucosae Submucosa Submucosa Peyer’s patches Muscularis externa 68

Figure 38.10 The large intestine.
Left colic (splenic) flexure Right colic (hepatic) flexure Transverse mesocolon Transverse colon Epiploic appendages Superior mesenteric artery Descending colon Haustrum Ascending colon Cut edge of mesentery Ileum Tenia coli Ileocecal valve Sigmoid colon Cecum Appendix Rectum Anal canal External anal sphincter 69

Figure 38.15 Ducts of accessory digestive organs.
Right and left hepatic ducts of liver Cystic duct Common hepatic duct Bile duct and sphincter Accessory pancreatic duct Mucosa with folds Tail of pancreas Pancreas Gallbladder Jejunum Major duodenal papilla Main pancreatic duct and sphincter Hepatopancreatic ampulla and sphincter Head of pancreas Duodenum 70

Figure 38.16 Microscopic anatomy of the liver.
Lobule Central vein Connective tissue septum Interlobular veins (to hepatic vein) Central vein Sinusoids Bile canaliculi Plates of hepatocytes Bile duct (receives bile from bile canaliculi) Fenestrated lining (endothelial cells) of sinusoids Bile duct Portal venule Portal triad Stellate macrophages in sinusoid walls Portal arteriole Portal vein 71

Figure 40.1 Organs of the urinary system.
Esophagus (cut) Hepatic veins (cut) Inferior vena cava Adrenal gland Renal artery Renal hilum Renal vein Aorta Kidney Iliac crest Ureter Rectum (cut) Uterus (part of female reproductive system) 12th rib Urinary bladder Urethra Anterior Inferior vena cava Aorta Peritoneum Peritoneal cavity (organs removed) Renal vein Supportive tissue layers Renal fascia Renal artery anterior posterior Perirenal fat capsule Kidney Body of vertebra L2 Fibrous capsule Body wall Posterior

Figure 40.2 Detailed structure of the urinary bladder, urethral sphincters, and urethra.
Peritoneum Ureter Rugae Detrusor Adventitia Ureteric orifices Trigone of bladder Bladder neck Internal urethral sphincter Prostate Trigone Prostatic urethra Intermediate part of the urethra External urethral sphincter Urogenital diaphragm Urethra External urethral orifice Spongy urethra Erectile tissue of penis External urethral orifice 73

Figure 40.3 Internal anatomy of the kidney.
Renal hilum Cortical radiate vein Cortical radiate artery Renal cortex Arcuate vein Arcuate artery Renal medulla Interlobar vein Interlobar artery Major calyx Segmental arteries Papilla of pyramid Renal vein Renal artery Renal pelvis Renal pelvis Minor calyx Ureter Ureter Renal pyramid in renal medulla Renal column Fibrous capsule 74

Figure 40.4 Cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons and their associated blood vessels.
Cortical nephron Juxtamedullary nephron Short nephron loop Long nephron loop Glomerulus further from the cortex-medulla junction Glomerulus closer to the cortex-medulla junction Efferent arteriole supplies peritubular capillaries Efferent arteriole supplies vasa recta Renal corpuscle Glomerulus (capillaries) Efferent arteriole Cortical radiate vein Glomerular capsule Cortical radiate artery Afferent arteriole Collecting duct Proximal convoluted tubule Distal convoluted tubule Afferent arteriole Efferent arteriole Peritubular capillaries Ascending limb of nephron loop Cortex- medulla junction Arcuate vein Arcuate artery Vasa recta Descending limb of nephron loop Nephron loop 75

Figure 40.5 A schematic, uncoiled nephron.
Afferent arteriole Glomerular capillaries Efferent arteriole Cortical radiate artery Glomerular capsule 1 Renal tubule containing filtrate Peritubular capillary 2 Three major renal processes: 3 1 Glomerular filtration To cortical radiate vein 2 Tubular reabsorption 3 Tubular secretion Urine 76

Figure 40.6 Microscopic structure of kidney tissue.
Cuboidal epithelium of renal tubule Lumen of glomerular capsule Glomerulus Granular cells Parietal layer of glomerular capsule Macula densa Renal tubules Lumen of the glomerular capsule Glomeruli 77

Figure 40.7 Structure of the ureter wall.
Circular layer Smooth muscle Longitudinal layer Transitional epithelium Adventitia 78

Figure 42.1a Reproductive organs of the human male.
Ureter Peritoneum Urinary bladder Seminal gland (vesicle) Prostatic urethra Pubis Ampulla of ductus deferens Intermediate part of the urethra (membranous urethra) Ejaculatory duct Rectum Urogenital diaphragm Prostate Bulbo-urethral gland Corpus cavernosum Anus Corpus spongiosum Spongy urethra Bulb of penis Ductus (vas) deferens Epididymis Glans penis Testis Prepuce (foreskin) Scrotum External urethral orifice 79

Figure 42.1b-c Reproductive organs of the human male.
Ureter Ampulla of ductus deferens Prostatic urethra Seminal gland Urinary bladder Ejaculatory duct Prostate Bulbo-urethral gland and duct Orifices of prostatic ducts Urogenital diaphragm Intermediate part of the urethra Bulb of penis Crus of penis Root of penis Bulbo-urethral duct opening Ductus deferens Corpora cavernosa Epididymis Corpus spongiosum Body (shaft) of penis Testis Section of (c) Spongy urethra Glans penis Prepuce (foreskin) External urethral orifice Dorsal vessels and nerves Corpora cavernosa Urethra Skin Tunica albuginea of erectile bodies Deep arteries Corpus spongiosum

Figure 42.2 Structure of the testis.
Interstitial endocrine cells Immature sperm Spermatic cord Blood vessels and nerves Seminiferous tubule Ductus (vas) deferens Head of epididymis Efferent ductule Spermatogenic cells Rete testis Lobule Straight tubule Septum Tunica albuginea Body of epididymis Spermatic cord Tunica vaginalis Duct of epididymis Cavity of tunica vaginalis Tail of epididymis Epididymis Testis 81

Figure 42.5 Cross section of epididymis (120).
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Spermatozoa Stereocilia 82

Figure 42.7a Internal reproductive organs of the human female.
Suspensory ligament of ovary Infundibulum Uterine tube Ovary Peritoneum Fimbriae Uterosacral ligament Uterus Round ligament Perimetrium Vesicouterine pouch Rectouterine pouch Urinary bladder Rectum Pubic symphysis Posterior fornix Mons pubis Cervix Urethra Anterior fornix Clitoris Vagina External urethral orifice Anus Hymen Urogenital diaphragm Labium minus Greater vestibular gland Labium majus 83

Figure 42.7b Internal reproductive organs of the human female.
Suspensory ligament of ovary Uterine (fallopian) tube Ovarian blood vessels Fundus of uterus Lumen (cavity) of uterus Uterine tube Ampulla Ovary Isthmus Broad ligament Infundibulum Mesosalpinx Fimbriae Mesovarium Mesometrium Round ligament of uterus Ovarian ligament Wall of uterus Endometrium Body of uterus Myometrium Ureter Perimetrium Uterine blood vessels Isthmus Internal os Uterosacral ligament Cervical canal Cardinal (lateral cervical) ligament External os Vagina Lateral fornix Cervix 84

Figure 42.8 Cross-sectional view of the uterine wall.
Endometrium Myometrium Serosa 85

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