2. The Brain: History of Research
Homunculus
An idea from ancient Egypt
Also 17th century-ie. The whole person is in the sperm: animalcules=baby
Our systems run by this “little man”

3. Trepanations Sections of bone are drilled or cut out of the skull
Skulls found in China, Peru, Medieval Europe
Many show healing, so survival

4. Hippocrates (460-377 BCE) Father of modern medicine
EMPIRICAL observation
1st to suggest mind is in brain

5. Plato (428-348 BCE) A rationalist approach
Intelligible world:all perfect forms exist in our minds; Sensible: physical experience
The head is round:a perfect shape

6. Aristotle (384-322 BCE) Empiricist Mind and body are a whole
The mind does not exist outside the realm of physical experience
Brain= radiator

7. Herophilus & Erasistratus (304 BCE)
Invented the catheter
Dissected dead (prisoners sentenced to death)
Distinguished nerve fiber from tendons
1st real description of the brain
Noted ventricles and four cavities in the brain; believed the soul resided in the ventricles. Some dissection and some vivisection.

8. Galen (129-199 BCE) Roman physician to gladiators
4 humors: blood, phlegm, choler, black bile
Must balance
Excess bile=melancholy
Dominant theory for 1200 years
Black bile=earth=too much=meloncholy
Blood=air=too much=sanguine
Yellow=fire=too much=choleric (hot, dry disease, so increase cold wet phlegm with cold bath)
Phlegm=water=too much=phlegmatic (cold wet disease, so bundle up in bed and drink wine)
If thise type of balance didn’t work, then take hellebore (a poison) to make one vomit thereby expelling the excess humor

9. Medieval Europe Superstition and witchcraft (madness)
Barber/surgeons did extract “stones of madness” from the head

10. Locke and Descartes Rene Descartes John Locke 1596 to 1650
Animal spirits in nerves take info to brain to move body
“I think, therefore I am”
Rationalist/mind and body separate!
John Locke
1632 to1704
“Tabula rasa”
Our experience “writes” upon us and creates our understanding
Empiricist; Aristotelian

11. Franz Joseph Gall (early 1800’s)
“organs of the brain”
Studied inmates in jails and asylums
PHRENOLOGY
Totally wrong, but the first to insist that organization of behavior relates to organization of the brain

13. Phrenology Diagram
For much more on phrenology, go to...

14. Pierre Flourens 1820’s Demolishes Gall’s claims “love bump”
Occipital area!

15. Paul Broca 1831 Physician in Paris insane asylum
Young man dies of infection
Discovers “Broca’s area” ie. speech

16. Phineas Gage
1st to demonstrate personality and brain connection
Railway tamping iron (3’7”, 13.5 lbs)
Skull displayed at Harvard

18. Gustav Fritsch/Eduard Hitzig 1870
Franco-Prussian War: wounded soldiers
Electrical stimulation of the brain
David Ferrier: dogs (5 centers), monkeys (15 centers)

19. Egas Moniz 1930’s +
Mental illness caused by “stickiness” in brain cells,
1st step: trepanation & alcohol injected
But then severed connections in brain tissue
The stickiness causes repetition of bad behavior, although there was no scientific evidence of stickiness, he pursued the idea anyway. If one could destroy the sticky connections, one could fix the behavior.
The procedures ended symptoms of extreme worry, anxiety etc, but also made people duller and apathetic.

20. Walter Freeman: lobotomy 1930’s to 1950’s
Egas Moniz: monkeys and the mentally ill
Freeman pioneers ice pick lobotomy
3,500 over 28 years
Mentally ill “too self aware”

21. James Olds/Peter Milner 1954
Stimulated rat brains
Hypothalamus by accident!
Sought stimulation
Pressed bar 2000x per hour for hours/collapsed

22. Jose Delgado 1969+ Yale Implanted electrode in a bull brain
Went in the ring, at bull’s charge, signaled the electrode and changed the direction and attention of the bull
His work was studied and supposedly used by the CIA in mind control experiments in Vietnam

23. Roger Sperry 1913-1994 Nobel Prize 1981
Cut cat brains in half
Severed the corpus callosum
Info presented to one side was not recognized by the other
Then, on humans for epilepsy

24. Corpus callosum

25. Pet Scans Positron emission tomography
Measures glucose and where it is burned in the brain
Uses a slightly radioactive solution

26. The Nun Study: David Snowden 2001
678 nuns: controlled group
Alzheimer’s: sticky tangles of plaque,stops communication
10% of people over 65 get A.; 50% over 85.

27. Nun Study cont.
Used autobiographies written as girls when they entered the sisterhood
Objective measure of cognitive abilities
Idea density (# of ideas per 10 words)
Grammatical complexity
Based on this 85-90% accuracy predicting who would get Alzheimer’s

28. Idea density: 85-90% accuracy
LOW: I was born in Eau Claire, Wis., on May 24, 1913, and was baptized in St. James Church. My father, Mr. L.M. Hallacher, was born in the city of Ross, County Cork, Ireland, and is now a sheet-metal worker in Eau Claire.
High: When I was first told that I saw the light of day on a Tuesday noon, there automatically ran through my mind the old nursery rhyme pretending to predict one’s fate by making it depend on the day of the week on which one was born.

29. Nun Study cont.
Emotional content also had an affect on longevity (those who used words like happiness, hope, gratitude vs. shame, guilt)
Folic acid

30. Autopsies: never one cause
Ex. Sister Bernadette: excellent word density and no symptoms, but dense tangles at autopsy; other parts of the brain compensated?

32. Lesson: Use it (feed it) or lose it Is it set by 20 years of age?

33. Recent research Many diverse directions: Nun study (Alzheimer’s)
Language (how and when we learn)
Tumors (laser surgery…)
Music “Mozart effect”
Medications for depression…
Current controversy regarding adult anti-depressants used in children

34. Left Brain/Right Brain

39. Does size matter?

40. Comparative brains

47. Opioids in the brain

48. Adderall and Ritalin
Both Adderall and Ritalin are central nervous system (CNS) stimulants. They work by increasing the availability of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine in your CNS connections. This speeds up your brain activity.
Ritalin works sooner and reaches peak performance more quickly than Adderall does. However, Adderall stays active in your body longer than Ritalin does. Adderall works for four to six hours. Ritalin is only active for two to three hours. This doesn’t necessarily mean that Adderall is a better choice, though. Some people prefer the shorter-acting Ritalin.
These can be addictive and should not be used by people who do have ADHD or narcolepsy etc. They are in the amphetamine family

49. Adderall chemistry
When used for short periods as prescribed by a physician, it has the positive effect of counteracting symptoms of ADHD. This happens by:
Increasing the availability of certain neurotransmitters like norepinephrine and dopamine in the brain. These brain chemicals are responsible for boosting alertness, attention, and energy levels.
Increasing the heart rate and the flow of blood to the muscles.

50. LSD
Two long-term effects reported by former users are psychosis and hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD). Psychosis is a severe mental illness, in which a person loses contact with reality. HPPD (often but less accurately called "flashbacks") is a disorder that includes ongoing perception problems, like the nonexistent trails Amanda sees.
LSD binds to and activates a specific receptor for serotonin, a brain chemical involved in emotions and the senses. It especially affects two brain regions: the cerebral cortex—involved in mood, cognition, and perception—and the locus ceruleus, which receives sensory signals.
"The main reason LSD is dangerous is because it's unpredictable in its effects," says NIDA's Dr. Jerry Frankenheim. "The most dangerous thing that can happen is that someone has a complete break with reality and thinks they can fly or stop traffic."

51. Marijuana users sometimes report that pot enhances their desire for sex. But a new review of research on marijuana and sexual health suggests that male smokers could be courting sexual dysfunction.
Research on the topic is contradictory and few studies are high-quality, said study researcher Rany Shamloul, a physician with appointments at the University of Ottawa and Queen's University in Canada as well as the University of Cairo. But recent research – including the finding that the penis contains receptors for marijuana's active ingredient  – suggests that young men may want to think about long-term effects before rolling a joint, Shamloul told LiveScience.
"It's a strong message to our younger generations and younger men," Shamloul said.
Shamloul reported his findings online Jan. 26 in the Journal of Sexual Medicine.
Sex and drugs
Scientists first began to study marijuana and sex in the 1970s. Some researchers found that cannabis seemed to have the effect of a love drug; in one 1982 study published in the Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 75 percent of male pot smokers said the drug enhanced their sex lives. Meanwhile, another study published in the same journal the same year found that erectile dysfunction was twice as common in marijuana users – not such good news for lit lotharios. Other research suggests a dose effect, in which small amounts of marijuana have little impact on sexual dysfunction, but more marijuana makes for fewer erections.

52. The 39 percent of men in the original 1982 study who said marijuana extended the duration of sex may just have been experiencing the drug's altering effects on the perception of time.
What most concerns Shamloul is a study published in 2010 in the journal European Urology. In that study, researchers found receptors for tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the active ingredient in marijuana, in penis tissue. These receptors were mainly in the smooth muscle of the penis, Shamloul said. Additional lab studies suggest that THC has an inhibitory effect on the muscle.
"This is a more serious effect on the erectile function because the smooth muscle makes up 70 percent to 80 percent of the penis itself," Shamloul said.

53. Open Note “Quiz”: which of the eight parts are we using?
I am balancing on one foot reading a terrifying short story that makes my heart race and my head spin at the delicate complexity of the plot.
Name three brain parts and how they are involved.

54. Name four parts of the brain involved.
Name those parts 2
I am so hungry that I quickly devour five coconut donuts and slam a glass of milk as I lose my balance and fall backwards off the chair. I feel my head hit the edge of the wall and grab it with my hands. I throw up the donuts.
Name four parts of the brain involved.

55. Yep, it’s gonna work for me Name 2 parts
Name those parts 3
Oh my, oh my. That boy is beautiful. Caught his eye, stomach fluttered, pupils dilated…
Can’t believe I stole his business card out of the ‘win a free bagel’ jar at Einstein’s. committed his number to memory and slipped the card back.
Yep, it’s gonna work for me
Name 2 parts

56. Name those parts 4:
I saw my boyfriend talking to that new girl and lost it! Started yelling.
My best friend gave me a sharp slap, it stung all day.

57. Opioids

58. TRUE OR FALSE
) The current opioid crisis is being called by many the worst drug overdose epidemic in American history.1 2) In 2012, doctors in the U.S. wrote 259 million prescriptions for opioid painkillers, enough for every American adult to get a bottle of them.2 3) In 2015, more than 33,000 people died in the United States from opioids.3 4) Drug overdoses cause more deaths than car accidents in the U.S.4 5) Deaths from heroin alone have surpassed gun homicides in the United States.

59. VIDEO

60. Read and discuss
. What is the “heroin and prescription opioid epidemic,” and just how bad is it? Explain the magnitude of the crisis and the damage caused by it in your own words. Provide at least one example from your article.
2. What does the article state about the causes of this epidemic?
3. What does the article state about possible solutions to the epidemic?
4. What is your personal reaction to this article and to the opioid epidemic in general?