1. Unit 6: Learning
A.P. Psychology

2. Essential Question
How is behavior influenced by one’s environment, rewards/punishments, and social interactions?

3. Unit 6 (A): Classical Conditioning
A.P. Psychology

4. Do-Now (Discussion) What is learning as a psychological process?
What are some ways that people and animals learn from their environments?
How can learning change one’s thoughts and behavior?

5. Learning
Learning:
A relatively permanent change in an organism’s thought and behavior due to experience

6. Associative Learning Associative Learning:
Learning that certain events occur together
Classical Conditioning:
Association of two separate stimuli
Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson
John Garcia
Operant Conditioning:
Association of a response and its consequences
B.F. Skinner

7. Associative Learning (Create List in Journal)
Consider the following stimuli:
With what do you typically associate each stimuli?
The sight of dark clouds =
The sound of a marching band =
The taste of chicken soup =
The smell of hotdogs and hamburgers =
The feel of the warm sun on your skin =

8. Why Do We Associate?
Why do we typically associate such events with one another?
They typically occur with/as a result of one another
Natural Stimulus elicits Natural Response
(e.g. dark clouds = “rain”)

9. Associative Learning: Classical Conditioning
Learning to associate one stimulus with another

10. Associative Learning: Operant Conditioning
Learning to associate a response with a consequence

11. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov (Behavioral Psychologist)
Example of associative learning
A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus
Helps organisms anticipate events
E.g. Dark clouds (natural stimulus) elicit “rain”
E.g. Umbrellas (neutral stimulus), when paired with dark clouds (natural stimulus) elicit “rain”

12. Ivan Pavlov ( )

13. Classical Conditioning

14. Classical Conditioning
Why might psychologists be interested in studying Classical Conditioning in humans and animals?
How does Classical Conditioning promote an organism’s survival?

15. Classical Conditioning
What are some examples of things that you have been classically conditioned to respond to?
What are some examples of things that your pets have been classically conditioned to respond to?

16. Review What is Classical Conditioning?
How does it suggest that we learn?
Differentiate between the following:
Neutral Stimulus
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)

17. Unit 6 (B): Classical Conditioning: Expanding Pavlov’s Understanding
A.P. Psychology

18. Do-Now: (In Journal) Pavlov’s Experiment in “Classical Conditioning”
Identify the following components of Pavlov’s experiment.
1.__ Neutral Stimulus
2.__ Unconditioned (Unlearned) Stimulus
3.__ Unconditioned (Unlearned) Response
4.__ Conditioned (Learned) Stimulus
5.__ Conditioned (Learned) Response
A. Bell B. Food C. Salivation (to Food) D. Salivation (to Bell)

19. Acquisition Acquisition: Classical Conditioning: Operant Conditioning:
Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
Neutral stimulus begins triggering conditioned response
Operant Conditioning:
The strengthening of a reinforced response
Neutral stimulus should come (.5 seconds) before the unconditioned stimulus

20. Acquisition
The Conditioned Stimulus (CS) needs to come half a second before
the Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) for acquisition to occur.

21. Acquisition Higher-Order Conditioning:
The conditioned stimulus in one experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus
E.g. An animal that learns that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and may begin responding to the light alone

22. Generalization Generalization:
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
John B. Watson, Rosalie Rayner: “Little Albert”

23. Generalization
Interpret this quote:
“The cat, having sat upon a hot stove lid, will not sit upon a hot stove lid again. But he won't sit upon a cold stove lid, either.”
–Mark Twain

24. Discrimination Discrimination:
The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

25. pet dog may exhibit discrimination
Can you think of an
example of how a
pet dog may exhibit discrimination
of a stimulus?

26. Extinction Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response
Classical Conditioning:
An unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
Operant Conditioning:
A response is no longer reinforced

27. Extinction
How could Pavlov make the conditioned response (salivating to the sound of a bell) become extinct?

28. Spontaneous Recovery Spontaneous Recovery:
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished response

29. Learned Helplessness Learned Helplessness:
The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated or aversive events

30. Learned Helplessness
How might being bullied as a child lead to the individual experiencing “learned helplessness?”
How might school leveling/tracking lead to the individual experiencing “learned helplessness?”
How would you suggest the individual should work to correct this learned behavior?

31. Biological Predispositions
John Garcia showed that the duration between the CS and the US may be long (hours), but yet result in conditioning. A biologically adaptive CS (taste) led to conditioning but other stimuli (sight or sound) did not.

32. Biological Predispositions
Even humans can develop classically to conditioned nausea.

33. Biological Predispositions
Psychologists may suggest that alcoholics use “Antabuse,” a pill that causes nausea when combined with alcohol
The use of this drug may serve to condition the alcoholic to become nauseous when drinking alcohol (aversive conditioning)

34. Applications of Classical Conditioning
1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.
2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

35. Applications of Classical Conditioning
John B. Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom.

36. Review What is acquisition?
Provide an example of the following elements of Classical Conditioning:
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
In what ways was the Study of “Little Albert” unethical?

37. Unit 6 (C): Operant Conditioning
A.P. Psychology

38. Do-Now: (Discussion)
Describe the following phenomena of Classical Conditioning:
Generalization
Discrimination
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Learned Helplessness
What is Operant Conditioning and how does it differ from Classical Conditioning?

39. Classical Vs. Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US)
Respondent Behavior
Operant conditioning forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.
Operant Behavior

40. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning:
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished by a punisher

41. Skinner’s Experiments
B.F. Skinner’s experiments extend Edward Thorndike’s thinking, especially his law of effect. This law states that rewarded behavior is likely to occur again.

42. Operant Chamber
Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the operant chamber, or the “Skinner Box,” to study operant conditioning.

43. Operant Chamber
The Operant Chamber, or “Skinner Box,” comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water.
The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal’s response.

44. Shaping
Shaping is the operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations.
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.

45. Types of Reinforcers Reinforcer:
Any event that strengthens (reinforces) the behavior it follows
A reinforcement is a reward

46. Types of Reinforcers

47. Types of Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer:
An innately reinforcing stimulus
Often satisfies a biological need
E.g. Pizza
Secondary/Conditioned Reinforcer:
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer
E.g. Money

48. Types of Reinforcers
If a teacher wanted to reinforce students arriving to class on time, how could he or she employ the following types of reinforcers:
Positive/Primary
Positive/Secondary
Negative/Primary
Negative/Secondary

49. Schedules of Reinforcement
Terms to consider:
Fixed:
Set/Pre-determined
Variable:
Changeable/Unpredictable
Ratio:
Number of times
Interval:
Amount of time intervals

50. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio:
Reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
E.g. Buy 10 coffees, get one free
Variable-Ratio:
Reinforces response after an unpredictable number of responses
E.g. Slot machines

51. Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Interval:
Reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
E.g. Weekly pay checks
Variable-Interval:
Reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
E.g. Pop quizzes

52. Schedules of Reinforcement
Provide an example of each of the following schedules of reinforcement:
Fixed-Ratio
Variable-Ratio
Fixed-Interval
Variable-Interval
Which one do you think is least effective?
Which one do you think is most effective?
Which one do you think is most addictive?

53. Schedules of Reinforcement

54. Punishment

55. If not, what other alternatives do you support?
Punishment
Do you feel that punishment is effective, and under what types of circumstances?
If not, what other alternatives do you support?

56. Punishment Effects of Punishment on Behavior:
Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten
Punishment does not teach appropriate behavior
Punishment causes unwanted behaviors to reappear in its absence
Punishment can teach fear
Justifies pain to others
Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems

57. Review What is Operant Conditioning?
Describe the following types of reinforcement:
Positive
Negative
Primary
Secondary (Conditioned)
Describe the following schedules of reinforcement:
Fixed-Ratio
Variable-Ratio
Fixed-Interval
Variable-Interval
What are some ways that punishment affects behavior?

58. Unit 6 (D): Operant Conditioning: Expanding Skinner’s Understanding
A.P. Psychology

59. Do-Now (Questionnaire/In Journal)
Answer the Yes/No questions on Hand-Out 7-7: “Sensitivity to Punishment and Sensitivity to Reward Questionnaire”
Tally up the Yes responses of odd and even numbers:
Sensitivity to Punishment:
Odd numbers: Higher scores representing higher sensitivity to punishment
Sensitivity to Reward:
Even numbers: Higher scores representing higher sensitivity to reward

60. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Skinner acknowledged the role of one’s cognition on operant conditioning
Cognitive Map:
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
E.g. after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

61. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Latent Learning:
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

62. Video Clip: Cognitive Maps
How does the rat use latent learning in pursuit of food, after its path has been blocked?

63. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Can you think of an example when you experienced latent learning?

64. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Insight:
A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

65. Types of Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic Motivation:
A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
Extrinsic Motivation:
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

66. Types of Motivation
What is something that you are intrinsically motivated to do?
What is something that you are extrinsically motivated to do?
With which type of motivation is operant conditioning more effective?

67. “Consideration of Future Consequences Scale”
Answer the questions on Hand-Out 7-4: “Consideration of Future Consequences Scale”
Tally up the numbers of your responses:
Reverse the numbers that you gave in statements 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, 11, and 12 (i.e., 1=5, 2=4, 3=3, 4=2, 5=1)
Next, add the numbers in front of all 12 items
The higher your score, the greater consideration you have for future consequences

68. Biology and Operant Conditioning
Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive
Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift toward their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors
Marian Breland Bailey

69. Operant Vs. Classical Conditioning

70. Review
What is a cognitive map? How did rats use it in operant conditioning?
What is latent learning? Provide an example.
What is insight? What is its role in problem-solving?
What is the difference between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation?
In what ways do organisms’ biology influence operant conditioning?

71. Unit 6 (E): Operant Conditioning: Applications of Operant Conditioning
A.P. Psychology

72. Do-Now (Questionnaire/In Journal)
Answer the questions on Hand-Out 7-8: “The Work Preference Inventory”
Tally up the numbers of your responses:
Intrinsic Motivation:
Reverse the numbers that you gave in statements 9 and 14 (i.e., 1=4, 2=3, 3=2, 4=1)
Next, add the numbers in front of items 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 14, 17, 20, 23, 26, 27, 28, and 30
Extrinsic Motivation:
Reverse the numbers that you gave in statements 1, 16, and 22 (i.e., 1=5, 2=4, 3=3, 4=2, 5=1)
Next, add the numbers in front of items 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 12, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, and 29
Scores will range from for both scales
Mean scores:
Intrinsic: 45
Extrinsic: 39
Higher scores indicate higher intrinsic or extrinsic motivation

73. Skinner’s Legacy
Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

74. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
In School

75. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership.
At Work

76. Applications of Operant Conditioning
In children, reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.
At Home

77. Review
Why were psychologists critical of Skinner’s theories of behavior?
What are some ways that operant conditioning is applied today:
In School
At Work
At Home

78. Unit 6 (F): Learning By Observation
A.P. Psychology

79. Do-Now (In Journal)
What is a behavior that you possess that you may have learned through observation?
Who did you learn it from?
Why do you think it became reinforced?

80. Learning By Observation
Observational Learning:
Learning by observing others
Also called Social Learning
Albert Bandura
Modeling:
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

81. Learning By Observation
Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others.
The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward.

82. Observational Learning and Language
How do you pronounce the word “orange?”

83. Observational Learning and Language

84. Observational Learning and Language
Have you ever traveled to another country, or another region of the US, and found yourself speaking and/or acting similar to the people of that region?
Why do you think your speech and/or behavior changed?

85. Mirror Neurons Mirror Neurons:
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

86. Learning by observation begins early in life.
Imitation Onset
Learning by observation begins early in life.
This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV, in pulling a toy apart.

87. Imitation in Children
Can you remember any ways that you imitated others (parents, older siblings, cousins, etc.) as a child?
Can you remember any ways that your younger siblings, cousins, etc. imitated you?

88. Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” Experiment
Bandura's “Bobo Doll” Experiment (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.

89. Applications of Observational Learning
Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood, or TV) may have antisocial effects.

90. Applications of Observational Learning
Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression.

91. Applications of Observational Learning
What are some TV shows, video games, or movies that you were exposed to as a child that modeled aggressive behavior?

92. Applications of Observational Learning
Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.
Children modeling after pro wrestlers

93. Applications of Observational Learning
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.

94. Applications of Observational Learning
Prosocial Behavior:
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior
The opposite of antisocial behavior

95. Review
What is Observational Learning? How does it differ from Classical and Operant Conditioning?
What are mirror neurons and how do they enable empathy and imitation?
What did Albert Bandura conclude about observational learning through his “Bobo Doll” Experiment?
What are prosocial and antisocial behavior and what are some ways that they are modeled?