1. Acid Rain Cooperation in Europe

2. The Problem
Svante Oden (1968): “The Acidification of Air and Precipitation and its Consequences.”
SOx, NOx -> transported over the continent ->form acids in precipitation or dry form
Damage to health, forests, lakes, soils, ecosystems – particularly in Sweden, Norway
International environmental externality

3. The Actors Leaders: Sweden, Norway
1972 Conference on the Human Environment
Laggards: UK, Germany, Communist Eastern Europe

4. The Breakthrough
1975 Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
USSR and US interested in détente
Environment the most convenient object of cooperation
Scandinavians saw an opportunity, so did Canada
The UN Economic Commission for Europe –lead agency
Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention (LRTAP), 1979
EMEP Protocol (1984)

5. More Lead Actors West Germany: the death of the Black Forest
30% club: Scandinavians, W. Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Canada, France
The First Sulfur Protocol (1985):
30% of 1980 emissions by 1993

6. The Protocols The Nitrogen Oxides Protocol (1988) VOC Protocol (1991)
Freeze emissions at 1987 levels by 1995
VOC Protocol (1991)
30% of emissions (base b/w 1984 and 1990) by 1999.
The Second Sulfur Protocol (1994)
Differentiated targets bases on critical loads for acidification for 2000 and 2010;technology standards
The Protocol on Heavy Metals (1998 )
The Protocol on POPs (1998)
Gothenburg Multipollutant Protocol (1999)

7. Regulatory Innovation
Critical loads: “the highest load that will not cause chemical changes leading to long-term harmful effects on the most sensitive ecological ecosystems” (Levy 1995, p. 61).
Why negotiate on the basis of critical loads estimates?

8. Critical Loads for Acid Deposition (red-high sensitivity, blue –low)

9. The RAINS Model Integrate science in international policy
Emissions module
Cost module
Dispersion module
Effects module (critical loads)

10. Second Sulfur Protocol: Correlation of SO2 Emission Ceilings and RAINS Recommendations

11. Second Sulfur Protocol (1994)
60% gap closure against critical loads
Differentiated targets
Requirement to apply Best Available Technology (BAT), achieve up to 90% desulfurization of emissions from large sources

13. The Gothenburg Protocol (1999)
Multiple effects: Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone
Multiple pollutants: emission ceilings for SOx, NOx, VOCs and ammonia (NH3) by 2010
Based on RAINS outputs
Emission limits for large combustion sources, dry cleaning, cars, trucks based on BAT
If implemented, Europe’s sulfur emissions should be cut by 63%, its NOx by 41%, VOC by 40%, and ammonia by 17% compared to 1990.

14. Gothenburg Protocol: Correlation of SO2 emission ceilings and RAINS Recommendations
Model Input vs. Protocol: SO2
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
J1 (final scenario from RAINS)
Protocol (accepted terms)
Poland
Bulgaria
Romania
Spain
German y
France
Italy
Hungary UK
Greece

15. EU Directives Large Combustion Plant Directive (1988)
Large Combustion Plant Directive II (2001)
National Emissions Ceilings Directive (2001)
1988 directive exported German legislation, helped the SSP;
2001 – after Gothenburg protocol, but slightly stronger commitments

16. Acid Rain Cooperation in Europe
Success or least common denominator agreements?

17. Emissions in the EC NOx-24%; SO2 -58%

18. Air Pollution in the US

19. Growth vs. Acidifying Emissions: Central and Eastern Europe

20. Growth and Acidifying Emissions: Commonwealth of Independent States

21. Conclusions
-What facilitates cooperation?
-Why some regimes ratchet up while other do not?