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Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology David Shier Jackie Butler Ricki Lewis
Created by Lu Anne Clark
Professor of Science, Lansing Community College
Chapter 16
Lecture Outlines*
*See PowerPoint image slides for all figures and tables
pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes”.

2. Chapter 16
Respiratory System

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Introduction 
A. The respiratory system consists of tubes that filter incoming air and transport it into the microscopic alveoli where gases are exchanged.
The respiratory membrane consists of two thicknesses of epithelial cells and basement membranes.

4. Organs of the Respiratory System 
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Organs of the Respiratory System 
A. The organs of the respiratory tract can be divided into two groups: the upper respiratory tract (nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, and pharynx), and the lower respiratory tract (larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs).
The organs of the upper respiratory tract are located outside the thorax.

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B. Nose
1. The nose, supported by bone and cartilage, provides an entrance for air in which air is filtered by coarse hairs inside the nostrils.

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C. Nasal Cavity
1. The nasal cavity is a space posterior to the nose that is divided medially by the nasal septum.
2. Nasal conchae divide the cavity into passageways that are lined with mucous membrane, and help increase the surface area available to warm and filter incoming air.

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3. Particles trapped in the mucus are carried to the pharynx by ciliary action, swallowed, and carried to the stomach where gastric juice destroys any microorganisms in the mucus.

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D. Paranasal Sinuses
1. Sinuses are air-filled spaces within the maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones of the skull.
2. These spaces open to the nasal cavity and are lined with mucus membrane that is continuous with that lining the nasal cavity.
3. The sinuses reduce the weight of the skull and serve as a resonant chamber to affect the quality of the voice.

10. 1. The pharynx is a common passageway for air and food.
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E. Pharynx
1. The pharynx is a common passageway for air and food.
2. The pharynx aids in producing sounds for speech.

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F. Larynx
1. The larynx is an enlargement in the airway superior to the trachea and inferior to the pharynx.
2. It helps keep particles from entering the trachea and also houses the vocal cords.
Blue box pg 432—Laryngitis is a potentially dangerous condition because it may cause obstruction of the airway.

13. a. The upper pair is the false vocal cords.
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4. Inside the larynx, two pairs of folds of muscle and connective tissue covered with mucous membrane make up the vocal cords.
a. The upper pair is the false vocal cords.
b. The lower pair is the true vocal cords.

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c. Changing tension on the vocal cords controls pitch, while increasing the loudness depends upon increasing the force of air vibrating the vocal cords.

15. The glottis is the opening between the vocal cords.
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5. During normal breathing, the vocal cords are relaxed and the glottis is a triangular slit.
6. During swallowing, the false vocal cords and epiglottis close off the glottis.
The glottis is the opening between the vocal cords.

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G. Trachea
1. The trachea extends downward anterior to the esophagus and into the thoracic cavity, where it splits into right and left bronchi.
2. The inner wall of the trachea is lined with ciliated mucous membrane with many goblet cells that serve to trap incoming particles.
3. The tracheal wall is supported by 20 incomplete cartilaginous rings.

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H. Bronchial Tree
1. The bronchial tree consists of branched tubes leading from the trachea to the alveoli.
2. The bronchial tree begins with the two primary bronchi, each leading to a lung.

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3. The walls of the alveoli are composed of simple squamous epithelium.
4. The procedure used to directly examine the trachea and bronchial tree is called bronchoscopy.

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I. Lungs
1. The right lung is larger and is divided into 3 lobes where the left is smaller and only has 2 lobes.

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3. Visceral pleura is the layers of serous membrane that is firmly attached to the surface of the lung.
4. The visceral and parietal pleural membranes are normally held together by surface tension.
5. The potential space between the pleural membranes is called the pleural cavity.

24. Breathing Mechanism 
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Breathing Mechanism 
A. Ventilation (breathing), the movement of air in and out of the lungs, is composed of inspiration and expiration.
B. Inspiration
1. Atmospheric pressure is the force that moves air into the lungs.
2. When pressure on the inside of the lungs decreases, higher pressure air flows in from the outside.

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3. Air pressure inside the lungs is decreased by increasing the size of the thoracic cavity; due to surface tension between the two layers of pleura, the lungs follow with the chest wall and expand.
4. Muscles involved in expanding the thoracic cavity include the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles.

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5. As the lungs expand in size, surfactant keeps the alveoli from sticking to each other so they do not collapse when internal air pressure is low.
Blue box pg 437—The condition of newborns called respiratory distress syndrome is caused by lack of surfactant.
Surfactant is a substance secreted by cells in the lungs that reduces surface tension.

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C. Expiration
1. The forces of expiration are due to the elastic recoil of lung and muscle tissues and from the surface tension within the alveoli.
2. Forced expiration is aided by thoracic and abdominal wall muscles that compress the abdomen against the diaphragm.

28. Emphysema-Topic of interest pg 439
Lung cancer pg 439 What does lung cancer develop from?
Pg 440 Top blue box Pneumothorax

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30. D. Respiratory Air Volumes and Capacities
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D. Respiratory Air Volumes and Capacities
1. The measurement of different air volumes is called spirometry, and it describes four distinct respiratory volumes.
2. One inspiration followed by expiration is called a respiratory cycle; the amount of air that enters or leaves the lungs during one respiratory cycle is the tidal volume.
During forceful expiration, the air that can be expelled from the lungs in addition to the tidal volume is called expiratory reserve volume.

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The maximum amount of air a person can exhale after taking the deepest breath possible is a measurement of the vital capacity.

32. Control of Breathing 
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Control of Breathing 
A. Normal breathing is a rhythmic, involuntary act even though the muscles are under voluntary control.

33. 1. Blue box pg 441—What cannot be measured using a spirometer.
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B. Respiratory Center
1. Blue box pg 441—What cannot be measured using a spirometer.
2. The respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata and the pons of the brainstem.
Breathing rate is most likely to increase if the blood concentration of carbon dioxide increases.

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3. The receptors of the inflation reflex are most sensitive to stretch.
4. Hyperventilation is the voluntary increase in the rate and depth of breathing.
5. Carbon dioxide is sometimes added to the air that a patient breathes in order to increase the rate and increase the depth of breathing.
6. Hyperventilation is most likely to be accompanied by a decrease in blood carbon dioxide and the increase in pH.

35. Alveolar Gas Exchanges 
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Alveolar Gas Exchanges 
A. The alveoli are the only sites of gas exchange between the atmosphere and the blood.
B. Alveoli
1. The alveoli are tiny sacs clustered at the distal ends of the alveolar ducts.

36. C. Respiratory Membrane
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C. Respiratory Membrane
1. The respiratory membrane consists of the epithelial cells of the alveolus, the endothelial cells of the capillary, and the two fused basement membranes of these layers.
2. Gas exchange occurs across this respiratory membrane.

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38. D. Diffusion across the Respiratory Membrane
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D. Diffusion across the Respiratory Membrane
1. Gases diffuse from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure.
2. Gas exchange between the air in the alveoli and the blood in nearby capillaries occurs primarily by diffusion.
3. Air is 21% oxygen.
4. Within a mixture of gases, the pressure created by each gas is called its partial pressure.

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Gas Transport 
A. Gases are transported in association with molecules in the blood or dissolved in the plasma.

40. Carbon monoxide bonds to hemoglobin more effectively than does oxygen.
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B. Oxygen Transport
1. Over 98% of oxygen is carried in the blood bound to hemoglobin of red blood cells, producing oxyhemoglobin.
2. Oxyhemoglobin is unstable in areas where the concentration of oxygen is low, and gives up its oxygen molecules in those areas.
Carbon monoxide bonds to hemoglobin more effectively than does oxygen.

41. C. Carbon Dioxide Transport
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C. Carbon Dioxide Transport
1. Carbon dioxide may be transported dissolved in blood plasma, as carbaminohemoglobin (when carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin, or as bicarbonate ions.
2. Most carbon dioxide is transported in the form of bicarbonate.

42. Carbonic anyhydrase causes carbon dioxide to react with water.
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3. When carbon dioxide reacts with water in the plasma, carbonic acid is formed slowly, but instead much of the carbon dioxide enters red blood cells, where the enzyme carbonic anhydrase speeds this reaction.
Carbonic anyhydrase causes carbon dioxide to react with water.