1. Diet, Metabolites, and “Western-Lifestyle” Inflammatory Diseases
Alison N. Thorburn, Laurence Macia, Charles R. Mackay 
Immunity 
Volume 40, Issue 6, Pages (June 2014)
DOI: /j.immuni
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. Terms and Conditions

2. Figure 1
Major Points where Dietary or Bacterial Metabolites Intersect with the Immune System
In the GI tract, dietary fiber is primarily digested by commensal bacteria in the colon, which produces high concentrations of SCFAs, such as acetate, propionate, and butyrate. Other metabolites, such as ω-3 fatty acids, succinate, or kynurenic acid, are directly consumed and absorbed throughout the GI tract. In addition, metabolites can be directly absorbed in the small intestine. SCFAs (mainly acetate) are transported from the gut to the blood, where they can influence bone marrow and many cell types throughout the body. Another major point of intersection is the transfer of metabolites to the developing fetus. SCFAs are able to cross the placenta or be delivered via breast milk, where they can influence gene expression and the development of the immune system.
Immunity  , DOI: ( /j.immuni )
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. Terms and Conditions

3. Figure 2 Dietary Fiber, SCFAs, and Mechanisms of Gut Homeostasis
There is now overwhelming evidence of the positive health benefits of high consumption of dietary fiber and the associated high concentrations of SCFAs in the gut (acetate, ∼40 mM; propionate, ∼20 mM; and butyrate, ∼20 mM). The seven major actions for fiber and SCFAs can be summarized as follows: (1) “competitive exclusion,” whereby a high-fiber diet expands commensal bacteria and limits pathogenic bacteria access to the gut epithelium; (2) SCFA-induced promotion of mucus by gut epithelial cells; (3) SCFA-induced secretion of IgA by B cells; (4) SCFA-induced promotion of tissue repair and wound healing; (5) SCFA-induced promotion of Treg cell development in the gut in a process that presumably facilitates immunological tolerance; (6) SCFA (particularly acetate)-mediated enhancement of epithelial integrity in a process dependent on inflammasome activation and IL-18 production; and (7) anti-inflammatory effects, particularly inhibition of NF-κb.
Immunity  , DOI: ( /j.immuni )
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. Terms and Conditions

4. Figure 3
Tryptophan Catabolites, Agonism of AhR, or Stimulation of Metabolite-Sensing GPCRs
Tryptophan, an essential amino acid, is found in foodstuffs such as red meat, fish, eggs, and many vegetables. Tryptophan can be catabolized by microbial species, such as lactobacilli, to yield indole-3-aldehyde, an aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonist. Tryptophan can also be transported across the epithelium by transport machinery comprising Ace2. Tryptophan is degraded to kynurenin (an AhR agonist) by the immune-regulatory enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). After agonist binding, AhR-dependent gene expression includes genes involved in the production of mediators important for gut homeostasis; such mediators include IL-22, antimicrobicidal factors, increased Th17 cell activity, and the maintenance of intraepithelial lymphocytes (IELs) and RORγt+ innate lymphoid cells (ILCs). A number of tryptophan metabolites, including kynurenic acid and niacin, agonize metabolite-sensing GPCRs, such as GPR35 and GPR109A.
Immunity  , DOI: ( /j.immuni )
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. Terms and Conditions