1. Social Stratification
Society The Basics
FOURTEENTH EDITION
Chapter 8
Social Stratification

2. Learning Objectives (1 of 3)
8.1 Identify four principles that underlie social stratification. 8.2 Apply the concepts of caste, class, and meritocracy to societies around the world. 8.3 Apply structural-functional theory to the topic of social inequality. 8.4 Apply social-conflict theories to the topic of social inequality. 8.5 Apply symbolic-interaction theory to the topic of social inequality.

3. Learning Objectives (2 of 3)
8.6 Analyze the link between a society’s technology and its social stratification. 8.7 Describe the distribution of income and wealth in the United States. 8.8 Discuss the various social class positions in United States society. 8.9 Analyze how social class position affects health, values, politics, and family life.

4. Learning Objectives (3 of 3)
8.10 Assess the extent of social mobility in the United States Summarize patterns and explanations of poverty in the United States population Assess the trend toward increasing economic inequality in the United States.

5. The Power of Society
What are a person’s odds of being born into poverty?

6. Social Stratification Learning Objective 8
Social Stratification Learning Objective 8.1: Identify four principles that underlie social stratification.
System by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy
Based on four important principles
Our social standing is largely the result of the way society (or a world of societies) structures opportunity and reward. To the core of our being, we are all products of social stratification.

7. Basic Principles of Social Stratification
Is a trait of society
Persists over generations
Is universal but variable
Involves not just inequality, but beliefs

8. Caste and Class Systems Learning Objective 8
Caste and Class Systems Learning Objective 8.2 Apply the concepts of caste, class, and meritocracy to societies around the world.
Caste system
Social stratification based on ascription, or birth
Class system
Social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement

9. The Caste System Birth determines social position in four ways.
Occupation
Marriage within caste
Social life restricted to “own kind”
Belief systems often tied to religious dogma

10. The Caste System in India
Caste has given way to a class system.
Achievement plays a greater part in social ranking.
Income and consumption are keys to social standing.
In rural India, the traditional caste system still shapes people's lives.
The “untouchables” are a category below the four basic castes.

11. The Caste and Agrarian Life: South Africa
Despite dramatic political change, social stratification in South Africa is still based on race
ukuhleleleka
Economy is still dominated by the white minority.
How has race been a form of caste in South Africa?

12. The Class System (1 of 3) Meritocracy Social mobility
Social stratification based on personal merit
Social mobility
Change in position within the social hierarchy
Status consistency
Degree of uniformity in a person's social standing across various dimensions of social inequality

13. The Class System (2 of 3) How does this system work?
Social mobility is possible for people with education and skills.
All people gain equal standing before the law.
Work involves some personal choice.

14. The Class System (3 of 3) Caste system Class system
Limited social mobility and high status consistency
Class system
Greater mobility and less status consistency

15. Caste and Class: The United Kingdom (1 of 2)
Aristocratic England
Caste-like system of aristocracy
Estates
First estate: Church leaders
Second estate: Aristocracy
Third estate: Commoners

16. Caste and Class: The United Kingdom (2 of 2)
The United Kingdom today
Evidence of caste elements
Commoners control of government
Mixed caste elements and meritocracy
Prince William and his new bride take their place as part of a royal family that traces its ancestry back more than a thousand years—an element of caste that remains in the British class system.

17. Emerging Social Classes: China
China: Revolution in 1949 and beyond
Mao Zedong: All types of work equally important
Deng Xiaoping: New class of business owners
Jinping: Small group of wealthy elites

18. Caste and Class Systems: China
Modern China
Structured upward mobility
Emerging new class system
Expanding economy
Returning “hai gui”
With more and more money to spend, the Chinese are now a major consumer of automobiles—a fact that probably saved the Buick brand from extinction.

19. Classless Societies: The Former Soviet Union
Feudal estate system
Russian Revolution
Apparatchiks
Intelligentsia
Manual Workers
Rural peasants

20. Caste and Class Systems: Russian Federation
Modern Russian Federation
Perestroika “restructuring”
Structural social mobility
Shift in social position of large numbers of people
Due more to societal changes than to individual efforts

21. Ideology
Cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality.

22. Ideology: The Power behind Stratification
Plato
Every culture considers some type of inequality just.
Marx
Capitalist society keep wealth and power for few.
Spencer
“Survival of the fittest” explanation

23. Explaining Stratification: Structural-Functional Theory (1 of 2) Learning Objective 8.3: Apply structural-functional theory to the topic of social inequality.
The Davis-Moore thesis
The greater the importance of a position, the more rewards a society attaches to it.
Egalitarian societies offer little incentive for people to try their best.
A society considered more important must reward enough to draw talented people
The Davis-Moore thesis
Made an important contribution to understanding social stratification
Fails to assess importance of occupations
Ignores how castes may prevent individual talent development
Overestimates importance of high-paying work
Ignores how social inequality may promote conflict or insight revolution

24. Explaining Stratification: Structural-Functional Theory (2 of 2)
Oprah Winfrey reported income of $165 million in
Guided by the Davis-Moore thesis, why would societies reward some people with so much more fame and fortune than others?
How would Karl Marx answer this question?

25. Explaining Stratification: Social-Conflict Theories Learning Objective 8.4: Apply social-conflict theories to the topic of social inequality.
Karl Marx: Class conflict
Most people have one of two relationships to the means of production.
Capitalist society reproduces the class structure in each new generation.
Capitalism creates great inequality in power and wealth.
Oppression would drive working majority to organize and overthrow capitalism.
Bourgeoisie own productive property
Proletariat works for the bourgeoisie

26. Evaluation: Social-Conflict Theories (1 of 3)
Had enormous influence on sociological thinking
Espoused no reward for individual performance
Predicted revolutionary change that did not occur

27. Evaluation: Social-Conflict Theories (2 of 3)
Multidimensional view of social stratification has greatly influenced sociological thinking.
Although social class boundaries may have blurred, industrial and postindustrial societies still show striking patterns of social inequality.

28. Evaluation: Social-Conflict Theories (3 of 3)
The recent recession sparked a resurgence of tent cities, including this one in Fresno, California. How would structural-functional analysis explain such poverty? What about the social-conflict approach?

29. Why No Marxist Revolution?
Industrial workers have not overthrown capitalism.
Fragmentation of the capitalist class
Higher standard of living
More worker organizations
More extensive legal protections

30. Was Marx Right? Wealth remains highly concentrated.
White-collar jobs offer no more income, security, or satisfaction than factory work did a century ago.
Current workers’ benefits came from struggle.
Ordinary people still face disadvantages that the law cannot overcome.
These developments suggest that U.S. society has smoothed many of capitalism’s rough edges
Yet some observers claim that Marx’s analysis of capitalism is still largely valid.

31. Max Weber: Class, Status, and Power (1 of 2)
Social stratification causes three levels of inequality.
Class position (economic inequality)
Status (social prestige)
Power
Socioeconomic status (SES)
Composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality.
Socioeconomic status (SES)
Composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality

32. Max Weber: Class, Status, and Power (2 of 2)
Inequality in history
Each dimensions of social inequality stands out at different points in the evolution of human societies.
Crucial difference is economic dimension of class.
Socialism would increase inequality by expanding government and creating a political elite.
The extent of social inequality in agrarian systems is greater than that found in industrial societies.

33. Explaining Stratification: Symbolic-Interaction Theory Learning Objective 8.5: Apply symbolic-interaction theory to the topic of social inequality.
Differences in social class position can affect interaction.
People interact primarily with others of similar social standing.
Conspicuous consumption involves buying and using products because of the "statement" they make.

34. Applying Theory Social Stratification Structural-Functional Theory
Social-Conflict Theory
Symbolic-Interaction Theory
What is the level of analysis?
Macro-level
Micro-level
What is social stratification?
Stratification is a system of unequal rewards that benefits society as a whole.
Stratification is a division of a society’s resources that benefits some people
and harms others.
Stratification is a factor that guides people’s interactions in everyday life.
What is the reason for our social position?
Social position reflects personal talents and abilities in a competitive economy.
Social position reflects the way society divides resources.
The products we consume all say something about social position.
Are unequal rewards fair?
Yes. Unequal rewards boost economic production by encouraging people to work harder and try new ideas. Linking greater rewards to more important work is widely accepted.
No. Unequal rewards only serve to divide society, creating “haves” and “have-nots.” There is widespread
Opposition to social inequality.
Maybe. People may or may not define inequality as fair. People may view their social position as a measure of self-worth, justifying inequality in
terms of personal differences.

35. Social Stratification and Technology: A Global Perspective Learning Objective 8.6: Analyze the link between a society’s technology and its social stratification.
Hunting and gathering societies
Horticultural, pastoral, and agrarian societies
Industrial societies

36. The Kuznets Curve
Greater technological sophistication generally is accompanied by more pronounced social stratification.
Greater technological sophistication generally is accompanied by more pronounced social stratification.
The Kuznets curve shows that greater technological sophistication is generally accompanied by more pronounced social stratification.
The trend reverses itself as industrial societies relax rigid, castelike distinctions in favor of greater opportunity and equality under the law.
Political rights are more widely extended, and there is even some leveling of economic differences.
However, the emergence of postindustrial society has brought an upturn in economic inequality, as indicated by the broken line added by the author.
Sources: Based on Kuznets (1955) and Lenski (1966).

37. Evaluation of the Kuznets Curve
Income inequality reflects not just technological development, but also the political and economic priorities of a country.
Model was developed with cross-sectional data that do not predict the future of individual societies.

38. Global Map 8-1 Income Inequality in Global Perspective
Societies throughout the world differ in the rigidity and extent of their social stratification and their overall standard of living.
This map highlights income inequality. Generally speaking, the United States stands out among high-income nations, such as Great Britain, Sweden, Japan, and Australia, as having greater income inequality.
The less economically developed countries of Latin America and Africa, including Colombia, Brazil, and the Central African Republic, as well as much of the Arab world, exhibit
the most pronounced inequality of income.
Is this pattern consistent with the Kuznets curve?
Source: Based on Gini coefficients obtained from Central Intelligence Agency (2012) and World Bank (2012).

39. Inequality in the United States Learning Objective 8
Inequality in the United States Learning Objective 8.7: Describe the distribution of income and wealth in the United States
U.S. society
Highly stratified
Rich have most of money, enjoy best schooling and health, and consume most goods and services

40. Income, Wealth, and Power
Earnings from work or investments
Wealth
Total value of money and other assets, minus outstanding debts

41. Figure 8-3 Distribution of Income and Wealth in the United States, 2011
Income and especially wealth are divided unequally in U.S. society.
Sources: Income data from U.S. Census Bureau (2012); wealth data based on Wolff (2012) and author estimates.
1The Census Bureau reports both mean and median incomes for families (“two or more persons related by blood, marriage, or adoption”) and households (“two or more persons sharing a living unit”).
In 2011, mean family income was $81,007, higher than the median family income ($60,974) because high-income families pull up the mean but not the median.
For households, these figures are somewhat lower—a mean of $69,677 and a median of $50,054—because families average 3.13 people and households average 2.55.

42. Occupational Prestige
Work generates social prestige.
In any society, high-prestige occupations go to privileged categories of people.
Check Table 8-1 to see if your desired occupation is on the list.

43. Schooling Schooling affects both occupation and income. In 2011
88% of women and men aged twenty-five and older had completed high school
30% of women and 31% of men were college graduates

44. Ancestry, Race, and Gender
Family of origin influences future schooling, occupation, and income.
More than one-third of U.S. richest people derived fortunes from inheritance.
White people have higher overall occupational status than African Americans.
On average, women have less income, wealth, and occupational prestige than men.

45. Social Classes in the U. S. Learning Objective 8
Social Classes in the U.S. Learning Objective 8.8: Discuss the various social class positions in U.S. society.
Defining classes in U.S. society is difficult because of relatively low level of status consistency.
Standing may change among dimensions.
Social position may change during a lifetime.

46. Social Classes: Upper Class (1 of 2)
The upper-uppers
The “blue bloods”
Membership almost always based on ascription
Set apart by the amount of wealth their families control
“Old money”
Devote time to community activities
Rankings
Upper class
Middle class
Working class
Lower class
People often distinguish between the “new rich” and families with “old money.” Men and women who suddenly begin to earn high incomes tend to spend their money on status symbols because they enjoy the new thrill of high-roller living and they want others to know of their success.
Those who grow up surrounded by wealth, by contrast, are used to a privileged way of life and are more quiet about it.
Thus the conspicuous consumption of the lower-upper class can differ dramatically from the more private pursuits and understatement of the upper-upper class.

47. Social Classes: Upper Class (2 of 2)
These women have appeared on the television program Real Housewives of New Jersey. Using the categories discussed in the pages that follow, within which social class category do you think they fall? Why?
Rankings
Upper class
Middle class
Working class
Lower class
People often distinguish between the “new rich” and families with “old money.” Men and women who suddenly begin to earn high incomes tend to spend their money on status symbols because they enjoy the new thrill of high-roller living and they want others to know of their success.
Those who grow up surrounded by wealth, by contrast, are used to a privileged way of life and are more quiet about it.
Thus the conspicuous consumption of the lower-upper class can differ dramatically from the more private pursuits and understatement of the upper-upper class.

48. Social Classes: Lower-Upper
The lower-uppers
The working rich
The “new rich”
People often distinguish between the “new rich” and families with “old money.” Men and women who suddenly begin to earn high incomes tend to spend their money on status symbols because they enjoy the new thrill of high-roller living and they want others to know of their success
The “new rich
Can still be excluded from some organization
More racial and ethnic diversity

49. Social Classes: Middle Class
Upper-middles
$116,000 to $205,000 yearly income
Education is important; high occupational prestige; involvement in local politics
Average-middles
$50,000 to $112,000 yearly income
Less occupational prestige; white collar or high-skilled blue collar jobs
Lower-middle class
Marxist “industrial proletariat”
Routine jobs with less satisfaction; vulnerable to financial problems caused by unemployment or illness
Upper-middles
$116,000 to $205,000 yearly income
Education is important
High occupational prestige
Involvement in local politics
Average-middles
Less occupational prestige
White collar or high-skilled blue collar jobs
$50,000 to $112,000 yearly income
Income provides modest security
Lower-middle class
Marxist “industrial proletariat”
Routine jobs with less satisfaction
One-half own their own homes
One-fourth of children go to college
Vulnerable to financial problems caused by unemployment or illnes

50. Social Class: Lower Class
46.3 million Americans classified as poor in (about 12.5% of the population)
70% complete high school; about 15% attend college
About 43% own their homes in less desirable urban neighborhoods/rural south
Others are “working poor” with minimum-wage jobs

51. The Difference Class Makes (1 of 4) Learning Objective 8
The Difference Class Makes (1 of 4) Learning Objective 8.9: Analyze how social class position affects health, values, politics, and family life.
Social stratification is linked to health, values and attitudes, politics, and family life.
Compared to high-income people, low-income people are only half as likely to report good health.
On average, live about five fewer years.
The toll of low income—played out in inadequate nutrition, little medical care, and high stress—is easy to see on the faces of the poor, who look old before their time.

52. The Difference Class Makes (2 of 4)
Health
Amount and adequacy of needed medical care vary with income level
Cultural values and attitudes
Vary with social class position
Compared to high-income people, low-income people are only half as likely to report good health and, on average, they live about five fewer years.
The toll of low income—played out in inadequate nutrition, little medical care, and high stress—is easy to see on the faces of the poor, who look old before their time.

53. The Difference Class Makes (3 of 4)
Politics
Follow complex pattern along class lines
Higher class: Conservative on economic issues; more liberal on social issues; more political involvement
Lower class: Liberal on economic issues; more conservative on social issues; lower voting records and political involvement

54. The Difference Class Makes (4 of 4)
Family and Gender
Family life shaped by social class.
Lower-class families are larger; child conformity to conventional norms expected.
Higher social standing families have different social capital and different parenting styles and expectations for children.
Gender-role responsibilities more rigid for lower-class families.

55. Social Mobility (1 of 2) Learning Objective 8
Social Mobility (1 of 2) Learning Objective 8.10: Assess the extent of social mobility in the United States.
Upward
College degree or higher-paying job
Downward
Drop out of school, losing a job or divorce

56. Social Mobility (2 of 2) Structural Social Mobility
Changes in society or national economic trends
Intragenerational mobility
Change in social position during a person’s lifetime
Intergenerational mobility
Upward or downward movement that takes place across generations within a family

57. Research Conclusions about U.S. Social Mobility
Social mobility has been fairly high.
Long-term trend has been upward.
Intergenerational mobility is small, not dramatic.
Social mobility since the 1970s has been uneven.
Short-term trend has been downward.

58. Mobility: Race, Ethnicity, and Gender
White people in United States have always been more privileged.
Women have limited opportunity for upward mobility.
Earnings gap between women and men still exists (77%).
Marriage pushes social standing upward.
White people in U.S. have always been in a more privileged position than people of African or Hispanic descent.
From , worker income decreased by 9%, even as the number of work hours increased and cost of necessities went up.
Many industrial jobs have gone overseas, reducing the number of high-paying US jobs.
For the first time ever, more than half of Americans age 18 to 24 live with their parents.

59. Global Economy and U.S. Class Structure
Global economic expansion underlies shifts in U.S. class structure.
Jobs changed from manufacturing to service work.
Upward mobility created for educated people.
Even though 52 percent of all families contain two or more workers—more than twice the share in 1950—many families are working harder simply to hold on to what they have (U.S. Census Bureau, 2012).
U.S. class structure
Investments available for those with money.
Downsizing in companies affects average workers.
Many US families working harder to stay afloat.

60. Poverty in the United States (1 of 2) Learning Objective 8
Poverty in the United States (1 of 2) Learning Objective 8.11: Summarize patterns and explanations of poverty in the U.S. population.
Social stratification creates both “haves” and “have-nots.”
Extent of U.S. poverty
15% of population are impoverished.
Henry Ossawa Tanner captured the humility and humanity of impoverished people in his painting The Thankful Poor.
The share of our population in poverty fell dramatically between 1960 and 1970.
Since then, the poverty rate has remained between 10 and 15 percent of the population.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2012).

61. Poverty in the United States (1 of 2)
Relative poverty
Deprivation of some people in relation to those who have more
Absolute poverty
Deprivation of resources that is life-threatening

62. Extent of Poverty: Poverty Line
Poverty line is about three times what the government estimates people must spend for food.
The income of the average poor family is 59% of this amount.

63. Demographics of Poverty (1 of 3)
Age
In 2011, 48% of U.S. poor were young people age 24 or younger.
About 7.8 percent (3.6 million) of the poor are elderly.
Race and ethnicity
Two-thirds of all poor are white.
In 2011, 27.6% of all African Americans and 25.3% of Hispanics were poor.

64. Demographics of Poverty (2 of 3)
Gender
59% of poor are women.
Women who head households are at high risk of poverty.
Feminization of poverty is result of rapidly increasing number of households at all class levels headed by single women.

65. Demographics of Poverty (3 of 3)
Urban and rural poverty
Greatest concentration of poverty is found in central cities (20% poverty).
Most of the counties with the highest poverty rate in the United States are rural.
Almost 30 percent of the poor now live in mostly poor communities.

66. National Map 8-1 Poverty across the United States, 2011
This map shows that the poorest counties in the United States—where the poverty rate is more than twice the national average—are in Appalachia, across the Deep South, along the border with Mexico, near the Four Corners region of the Southwest, and in the Dakotas.
Can you suggest some reasons for this pattern?
Explore the percentage of people living in poverty in your local community and in counties across the United States
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2012).

67. Explaining Poverty Blame the poor Blame society
The poor are mostly responsible for their own poverty.
Culture of poverty produces a self-perpetuating cycle of poverty.
Time limits set for welfare.
Blame society
There is little opportunity for work.
William Julius Wilson
Society is mostly responsible for poverty.
Loss of jobs in the inner cities is the main cause of poverty.

68. Homelessness Causes Poverty Substance abuse and mental illness
Long-term
Structural changes in the U.S. economy
Cutbacks in social service budgets
Recent economic downturn
Is society responsible for poverty or are individuals themselves to blame? When it comes to homeless families, most people think society should do more.
Is society responsible for poverty or are individuals themselves to blame? When it comes Bureau (2012); U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2012). homeless families, most people think society should do more.
No precise count; Experts estimate 636,000 on any given night

69. Increasing Inequality, Increasing Controversy Learning Objective 8
Increasing Inequality, Increasing Controversy Learning Objective 8.12: Assess the trend toward increasing economic inequality in the United States.
Rising level of debate about income inequality in the United States.
Economic inequality has reached levels not seen since 1929.
Large majority of people agree with the statement, “This is a country in which the rich get richer and the poor get poorer.”

70. Are the Rich Worth the Money?
People doubt that the highest-paid individuals are really worth the money they are paid.
The Occupy Wall Street movement criticized the very high leaders receives.
In 2011, with economic inequality increasing, the Occupy Wall Street movement emerged.
This groundswell of anger and activism put much of the blame for the recent recession on the very rich.

71. Can the Rest of Us Get Ahead?
Rising doubt that those willing to make the effort can enjoy economic security and expect to improve social standing over time.
Some claim the United States is no longer the land of opportunity.
The most striking social inequality is found by comparing living standards in various parts of the world.