1. Pragmatics

2. Pragmatics Definition The study of 'intended speaker meaning'
The study of 'invisible' meaning, the UNSAID: we recognize what is meant even when it is not actually said (or written).
In order to comprehend 'intended meaning', speakers/writers must be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and expectations.

3. Pragmatics Ex. 1 A: I have a fourteen year old son
B: Well that's all right
A: I also have a dog
B: Oh, I'm sorry
Ex. 2 A sign:
Heated
Attendant
Parking

5. Pragmatics
Context
LINGUISTIC CONTEXT > co-text: the set of words sorrounding a word within the same phrase or utterance ('bank', sorrounded by cash, money, check, refers to the financial institution)
PHYSICAL CONTEXT> the 'physical', social, and cultural situation where/when we encounter linguistic expressions (cf. the notice).

6. Pragmatics
Deixis
Deixis means 'pointing' via language, i.e. speakers and listeners can interpret some words only thanks to the physical context.
Deictic expressions
person deixis: I, you, him, it, them
time deixis: now, then, tomorrow, last week
place deixis: here, there, beyond
other deictics: that, this, those, these

7. Pragmatics Deixis (cont.)‏
Ex. You'll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren't here now.
All deictic espressions have to be interpreted in terms of what person, place or time the speaker/writer has in mind.

8. Pragmatics
Reference
As deictic expressions need a context to be interpreted, the context must be composed of referents,i.e. people, things, concepts.
Words themselves don't refer to anything. People refer. Reference is an act by which speaker/writer uses language to allow listeners/readers to identify people, things, concepts.
Behind 'him/that/here' there must be a person, an object, a place shared by both speaker and listener.

9. Pragmatics
Anaphora
The anaphoric relation connects the deictic expression to its referent.
Ex.: A : Where is my book?
B : It's on the table
Book = referent or ANTECEDENT
It = ANAPHORA

10. Pragmatics
Inference
It is an additional information used by the listener/reader to connect what is said to what must be meant.
Ex. I have just read Shakespeare
The listener/reader infers that the name stands for the book because s/he knows who Shakespeare is. (Common background)‏

11. Pragmatics Presupposition
It implies the fact that the speaker/writer always constructs her/his linguistic messages on the basis of the assumptions about their listeners/readers infer.
Ex. I have just read Shakespeare
There is an obvious presupposition that the listener/reader knows Shakespeare
Ex. Your brother is waiting outside for you
presupposition> you have a brother

12. Pragmatics Speech Acts Speech Event = CONTEXT
Actions performed through utterances:
Apology, complaint, invitation, promise, request/ order, statement. They depends on the communicative intention of the speaker and on the function they fullfil
Example
You are so beautiful!
I beg your pardon
Speech Event = CONTEXT

13. Pragmatics SPEECH ACTS Locutionary act
The act of producing meaningful linguistic expressionI
ex. I’ve just made some coffee
Illocutionary act
The act of producing meaningful linguistic expression with a purpose
ex. I’ve just made some coffee
>>>>>offer, the purpose is the illocutionary force
Perlocutionary act
The act of producing an utterance with the speaker’s intention to have some effect on the listener
ex. Would you like some coffee?
>>>>offer, but with a perlocutionary effect

14. Pragmatics SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION
DECLARATIVES
Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife
REPRESENTATIVES
The earth is flat
EXPRESSIVES
Congratulations!
DIRECTIVES
Don’t touch that
COMMISSIVES
I’ll be back

15. Pragmatics I'd be grateful if you'd shut the door.
INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS
SAID
I'd be grateful if you'd shut the door.  
Would you mind shutting the door? 
Could you shut the door? 
It'd help to have the door shut. 
It's getting cold in here.  
Shall we keep out the draught?
Now, Jane, what have you forgotten to do?
Brr!
UNSAID 

16. Pragmatics DIRECT SPEECH ACTS Teacher to student: "Pick up the chalk"
Vs 
INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS 
Teacher:"Johnny, there's some chalk on the floor"
A>unsuccessful unsaid B> successful unsaid
 S.:" Yes there is, sir S.:" Yes, here you are, sir."
T.:" Well, pick it up, then!"

17. Activity 1
What kinds of deictic expressions are used in this utterance (e.g. I = person deixis)?
I’m busy now so you can’t stay here. Come back later.
What are the anaphoric expressions in this sentence?
Dr. Foster gave Andy some medicine after he told her about his headaches and she advised him to take the pills three times a day until the pain went away.

18. Solution
Person deixis (I, you), spatial deixis (here, come back), temporal deixis (now, later)
Dr. Foster gave Andy some medicine after he told her about his headaches and she advised him to take the pills three times a day until the pain went away.

19. Activity 2
What kind of inference is involved in interpreting each of these utterances?
(a) Waiter: The ham sandwich left without paying.
(b) Nurse: The hernia in room 5 wants to talk to the doctor.

20. Solution
(a) if X is the name of a meal, then X can be used to refer to the person who orders the meal (in a restaurant setting)
(b) if X is the name of a medical condition, then X can be used to refer to the person with that medical condition (in a medical setting)

21. Activity 3 What is one obvious presupposition of a speaker who says:
(a) We regret buying that car.
(b) The king of France is bald

22. Solution
(a) We bought the car
(b) France has a king

23. Politness
Taken from ROBIN LAKOFF Talking Power. The Politics of Language. Basic Books 1990, page 34:
“[...] Politeness is a system of interpersonal relations designed to facilitate interaction by minimizing the potential for conflict and confrontation inherent in all human interchange. We like to think of conversation as conflict-free, with speakers normally being able to satisfy one another’s needs and interests.

24. Politeness
Taken from STEPHEN C. LEVINSON Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press, 1983, page 376:
«Even where there are underlying universals of usage, as seems to be the case in the construction of polite expressions (Brown & Levinson, 1978), there is considerable room for cross-cultural misunderstanding: for example, German speakers seem to be significantly more direct, or less polite, in requests and complaints than English speakers.»

25. SOME ENGLISH POLITENESS FORMULAE
Greetings/Farewells Good morning, Hello, Hi, Good night, Bye, See you
Introductions How do you do?, How's things? Hi
Thanks Thank you, Thanks a lot
Seasonal Greetings Merry Christmas, Happy Birthday
Apologies Sorry, I beg your pardon, My mistake 
Responses to apologies That's OK, Don't mention it, Never mind
Congratulations Well done, Right on, Congratulations
Body noises Excuse me, Bless you, Pardon me

26. TERMS OF ADDRESS Law of Familiarity The Guv'nor addresses:
Co-director Michael Yates as Mike
Assistant director Michael Yates as Michael
Sectional Manager Michael Yates as Mr Yates
Sectional Assistant Michael Yates as Yates
Indispensable secretary Michael Yates as Mr Yates
Apprentice Michael Yates as Michael
Night-watchman Michael Yates as Mike

27. FACE Politeness also implies the concept of FACE:
FACE: your public self-image
Politeness is then showing awareness of another person's FACE

28. FACE
We have both a positive face and a negative face. (Note that “negative” doesn’t mean “bad” here, it’s simply the opposite of “positive.”)
Positive face is the need to be connected, to belong, to be a member of the group.
Negative face is the need to be independent and free from imposition.

29. POLITENESS STRATEGIES: FACE WANTS

30. FACE WANTS
Ex.
A: I’m going to tell him to stop that awful noise right now!
(Face threatening act)
B: Perhaps you could just ask him if he’s going to stop soon because it’s getting a bit late and people need to get to sleep
(Face saving act)

31. FACE WANTS A face threatening act uses direct speech acts.
Ex.: Give me a pen (there is the intention to show more social power).
A face saving act can use both:
Positive politeness strategies (solidarity strategies):
Ex.: How about letting me use your pen?; I’d appreciate if you’d let me use your pen.
and 
Negative politeness strategies (deference strategies):
Ex.: Could you lend me a pen?; I’m sorry to bother you, but can I ask you for a pen or something?

32. Activity 4
In these examples, is the speaker appealing to positive or negative face? Are they face saving or face threatening acts?
(a) If you’re free, there’s going to be a party at Yuri’s place on Saturday.
(b) Let’s go to the party at Yuri’s place on Saturday. Everyone’s invite

33. Solution
(a) negative (“If you’re free”),
(b) positive (“Let’s go”)