1. Theories of learning

2. Learning Theory Q: How do people learn? A: Nobody really knows.
But there are 6 main theories:
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Social Learning Theory
Social Constructivism
Multiple Intelligences
Brain-Based Learning

3. How students learn?
Are students’ mind blank slates ready to be written what teachers want to write?
Behaviorists theories: explanation of learning that focus on external events as the cause of changes in observable behaviors.
Learning: Learning occurs when experience causes a relatively permanent change in behavior or in knowledge
“the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040)

4. Ivan Pavlov’s Experimental Setup

5. Classical conditioning -Work of Pavlov: the stimulus elicit the response automatically
Unconditioned Stimulus: Dog food
Conditioned Stimulus: Sound
Reflex response: Salvation
Tuning fork---food-----saliva
After several times
Tuning fork-----food---saliva
Tuning fork-----no food---no saliva
Extinction of conditioned behavior

7. The Puzzle Box Experiment -Thorndike

8. The Puzzle Box Experiment -Thorndike
A hungry cat was confined in a puzzle box and outside the box a dish of food was kept.
The cat, in the box had to pull a string to come out of the box.
The cat in the box made several random movement of jumping, dashing and running to get out of the box.
The cat at last succeeded in pulling the string. The door of the puzzle box opened, the cat came out and ate the food.
He promptly put the cat to next trial. The cat again gave a lot of frantic behaviour but it soon succeeded in pulling the string.
It was repeated for several time, Thorndike noticed as the repetition increases the error also reduced i.e., Thorndike's cat showed slow, gradual and continuous improvement in performance over successive trials.
He concluded that learning of cat in the puzzle box can be explained in term of formation of direct connection between stimulus and response.
He believed intelligence should be defined solely in terms of greater or lesser ability to form connections.

9. Law of Readiness
First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him

10. LAW OF EXERCISE The law of exercise had two parts:
(a) the law of use and
(b) the law of disuse.
This law stated that connections grow stronger when used—where strength is defined as “vigor and duration as well as the frequency of its making”—and grow weaker when not used.

11. LAW OF EFFECT
responses which occur just prior to a satisfying state of affairs are more likely to be repeated, and responses just prior to an annoying state of affairs are more likely NOT to be repeated.

12. Operant Conditioning Chamber by B F Skinner

13. Operant conditioning
The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning was far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human behavior.
He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.
Behavior----Re-inforcer------strengthened or repeated behavior
Positive reinforcer
For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your homework (i.e. a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

14. Negative reinforcer
For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.
Behavior punisher weakened or decreased behavior
Impact of re-inforcer does not sustain

15. It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement.
There are many problems with using punishment, such as:
1. Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present.
2. Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.
3. Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
4. Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do.

16. Behaviorism - Key points of consideration
Role of learners in learning- Active or Passive?
Who are/is responsible for learner's learning?
Are learners extrinsically or intrinsically motivated?
Motivation is an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior.
Intrinsic Motivation is motivation associated with activities that are their own reward. When we are intrinsically motivated, we do not need incentives and punishments, because the activity itself is rewarding.
Extrinsic Motivation is motivation created by external factors such as rewards and punishments.

17. The person is not responsible for behavior
If a person is extrinsically motivated i.e. he/she is totally at the mercy of the environment, Is she/he responsible for her/his behavior?
The person has only extrinsic worth
If the person is not responsible for behavior, then the person has no intrinsic worth. She or he can not be blamed for bad behavior and at the same time can not be given credit to the good behavior.
External rewards may diminish intrinsic motivation
As a consequence, the person attempts to gain prestige (worth in the eyes in the society) rather than the self esteem (worth in his/her own eyes).

18. Consequences?
How long can a learner remain extrinsically motivated through external reward?
Scholarships in class five and eight but average results in SSC and HSC
Very good grades in SSC and HSC but not impressive in the university
Very good results in universities but not so good in workplace

19. Any other way out?
Ausubel (1968): “If I was to reduce all the educational psychology to just one principle, I would say this: the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows.”
For a “meaningful learning” the learner must make a conscious effort to relate new knowledge to existing knowledge.
Existing
knowledge
New
Learning

20. Learner centered constructive approach of teaching
The constructivist draws heavily on the work of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky.
Both emphasized that cognitive change takes place only when previous conceptions go through a process of disequilibration in light of new information.
Piaget and Vygotsky also emphasized the social nature of learning, and both suggested the use of mixed-ability learning groups to promote conceptual change.
Four key principles derived from Vygotsky's ideas have played an important role:
Social Learning,
the Zone of Proximal Development,
Cognitive Apprenticeship, and
Mediated Learning.

21. Along with these key principles, constructivist approaches to teaching include such concepts as:
top-down processing,
cooperative learning,
discovery learning,
self-regulated learning,
scaffolding
In the content areas, constructivism supports approaches such as reciprocal teaching in reading, questioning the author, the writing process models, early math instruction approaches where students work together in groups and offer alternative strategies, and finally in the sciences where students work in discovery groups.

22. Basic assumptions in Constructivism
Learning outcomes depend not only on the learning environment but also on the knowledge of the learner.
Learning involves the construction of meanings. Meanings constructed by students may or may not be those intended. Construction of meaning is influenced to a large extent by our existing knowledge.
The construction of meaning is a continuous and active process.
Learners have the final responsibility for their learning.

23. Constructivism……
In short, learners construct their own understanding of experiences and that construction is influenced mainly by what learners already know and believe (Gunstone, 1995).

24. Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory Zone of proximal development
A student can learn himself/ herself
A student can learn with the help of more able person (a teacher or peers)
Zone of proximal development
Figure: Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development

25. The zone of proximal development (ZPD)
"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86).
He views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies.
He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development.
Later, to understand the ZPD Wood et al. (1976) used the term scaffolding.
The term scaffold refers to ‘those elements of the task that are initially beyond the learner’s capacity, thus permitting him to concentrate upon and complete only those elements that are within his range of competence’ (Wood et al. 1976, p. 90)

26. Wood and Middleton (1975) observed how mothers interacted with their children to build the 3D model. The type of support included:
General encouragement e.g. ‘now you have a go.’
Specific instructions e.g. ‘get four big blocks.’
Direct demonstration e.g. showing the child how to place one block on another
Wood et al. (1976) named certain processes that aid effective scaffolding:
Gaining and maintaining the learner’s interest in the task.
Making the task simple.
Emphasizing certain aspects that will help with the solution.
Control the child’s level of frustration.
Demonstrate the task.

27. Constructivism……
Social constructivism: emphasize on interactions among students and teachers, and student-society.
Group Work:
How would you teach if you are a constructivist teacher?

28. Elicitation of existing Ideas
Orientation
Elicitation of existing Ideas
Comparing
Restructuring of Ideas
Clarification and Exchange
Exposure to conflict situation
Construction of new ideas
Evaluation
Application of existing Ideas
Review change of Ideas

29. A few teaching techniques and strategies
Brainstorming
Concept Mapping
Prediction-Observation-Explanation (POE)
Mind Mapping

30. Five characteristics of teaching that make it learner-centered.
1. Learner-centered teaching engages students in the hard, messy work of learning. 2. Learner-centered teaching includes explicit skill instruction. 3. Learner-centered teaching encourages students to reflect on what they are learning and how they are learning it. 4. Learner-centered teaching motivates students by giving them some control over learning processes. 5. Learner-centered teaching encourages collaboration.

31. Information processing theory
Learn (save)
Perception
Working memory (15-20 sec)
Long term memory
Sensory memory (1-3 sec)
Retrieve (activate memory)
Directs attention