1. Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Chapter 1
Psychology 7e in Modules

2. The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how the scientific attitude encourages critical thinking.
Psychology 7e in Modules

3. Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe how psychological theories guide scientific research.
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4. For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
Theory
A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low-self-esteem contributes to depression.
Psychology 7e in Modules

5. People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.
People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

6. Research Process

7. Is language uniquely human?
Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes.
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Is language uniquely human?
Psychology 7e in Modules

8. Case Study Clinical Study
A clinical study is a form of case study in which the therapist investigates the problems associated with a client.

9. Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling.
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10. Wording can change the results of a survey.
Wording Effect
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)

11. Survey Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

12. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
OBJECTIVE 7| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation in studying behavior and mental processes.
Courtesy of Gilda Morelli
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13. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction.
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Psychology 7e in Modules

14. Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.

15. Scatterplots
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.

16. Data showing height and temperament in people.

17. Scatterplot
The Scatterplot below shows the relationship between height and temperament in people. There is a moderate positive correlation of

18. Correlation and Causation
OBJECTIVE 9| Explain why correlational research fails to provide evidence of cause-effect relationships.
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19. Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
OBJECTIVE 10| Describe how people form illusory correlations.
Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit
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20. Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control.
Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

21. Independent Variable
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of the amount of homework on intelligence, homework is the independent variable.
OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
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22. Dependent Variable
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of homework upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable.

23. Double-blind Procedure
Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment.
OBJECTIVE 13| Explain why random assignment and double-blind procedure build confidence in research findings.
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24. Evaluating Therapies Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental (Breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
Sometime research participants out of enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out come of an experiment. To control for such affects, a double-blind procedure is used, in which the participants and the experimenter’s assistants are not aware of which participants got real treatment and who got placebo.
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25. A summary of steps during experimentation.

26. Below is a comparison of different research methods.

27. Describing Data
A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions.
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how graphs can misrepresent data.
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28. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together.
Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of central tendency and tell which is most affected by extreme scores.
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29. Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution

30. Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
OBJECTIVE 18| Explain two measures of variation.
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31. Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance.
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32. When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Making Inferences
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Representative samples are better than biased samples.
Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.
More cases are better than fewer cases.
OBJECTIVE 19| Identify three principles for making generalizations from samples.
Psychology 7e in Modules

33. When is a Difference Significant?
Making Inferences
When is a Difference Significant?
When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance.
For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent.
OBJECTIVE 20| Explain how psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful.
Psychology 7e in Modules