1. The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century
1660–1800

2. Leading Up to 1660 1642–1651: English Civil Wars
1650–1651: Charles II flees to Scotland, attempts to invade England, and escapes to France.
1649: Charles I is beheaded on orders of a special Parliamentary court.
1642–1651: English Civil Wars
1660: Parliament restores Charles II to the throne.
1653–1658 : Oliver Cromwell rules England, Scotland, and Ireland as lord protector.
1642
1660
1644
1646
1648
1650
1652
1654
1656
1658

3. The Restoration During Charles II’s reign (1660–1685),
the Church of England regained its power
the life of the aristocratic courtier became the model for a sophisticated age of taste and luxury
theaters reopened and censorship of the arts declined
religious persecution of Catholics and Dissenters by Anglicans became widespread
Restoration followed approx. 20 years of civil war and Puritan rule (under Cromwell); stability returned to England.
Charles II returns from exile in France, bringing with him the lavish and leisured culture of French aristocrats.
Coffeehouses reopen, too – political and intellectual discussions ensue!
Other Historical Highlights…
1666: Great Fire of London – destroys much of the city, consuming 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, St. Paul’s Cathedral and most of the buildings of the City authorities. It is estimated to have destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the City's 80,000 inhabitants.
1685: James II (second son of Charles I) takes the throne when his brother, Charles II, dies. (Roman Catholic).
1688: The Glorious Revolution – England feared a monarch who favored alliances with Catholic powers in Europe. Parliament expelled James, offered throne to his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange. (Protestant). Mary II and William III ruled equally. Called “glorious” because it was bloodless.

4. Enlightened England
The period from 1660 to 1800 in England is known as the Enlightenment, the Age of Reason, the Augustan Age, or the neoclassical period.
This period brought many changes to
society
science
religion
literature
Names of the period (Age of Enlightenment, Age of Reason) reveals how people viewed themselves.
Augustan Age – after the Roman emperor Augustus, who was a patron of writers and artists.

5. Society The rich lived lavishly. They attended newly reopened theaters
wore expensive, heavily ornamented clothing
used make-up and wore heavy wigs that extended high over their heads (both men and women)
attended or hosted balls, masquerades, and dinners in London and in fashionable resort cities such as Bath
Social order was based on a class system; hereditary nobility on the top to a large impoverished class at the bottom.
Other events included dances, gambling soirees, and dinner parties.
Literary connection: Chaucer – The Wife of Bath

6. Society
Conditions for the poor of England’s great cities deteriorated. The poor
lived in filthy, overcrowded slums
suffered from poor sanitation and disease
were often sent to debtors’ prisons
had access to cheap gin and had high rates of alcoholism
Culver Pictures, Inc.
Night (18th century) by William Hogarth
Toward the end of the period, the Industrial Revolution was creating overcrowded slums and wretched working conditions.
Tenement housing was typically rat infested. An entire family would live in one room.
Poor hygiene; excrement on the streets, caused disease (including plague).
Doctors primarily served the rich; little medical treatment for the poor.
Children were expected to work; abuse was common.
Children often died young. At worst, approx. 74% in London died before age 5!
Little help from charities government.
Lack of education for lower class.

7. Science
Advances in science led to a better understanding of nature and its laws.
Sir Isaac Newton published his groundbreaking Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.
Robert Hooke contributed to the fields of astronomy, biology, chemistry, and physics.
Robert Boyle laid the foundation for the study of chemistry.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
Sir Isaac Newton
For notes, just the names of the scientists will do.

8. Religion
Catholics and Dissenters (members of non-Anglican Protestant churches) were persecuted.
Many Dissenters immigrated to other countries in search of religious freedom.
Deists, believers of a new and controversial religious doctrine, viewed the universe as a perfect mechanism that God had built and then left to run on its own.
Mary and William severely restricted rights of Catholics and Dissenters (Protestants outside of the Anglican church) – this continues after them, well into the 18th century.
Test Act of 1673: Catholics are not permitted to hold public office
Penal Laws of 1695: withheld civil rights from Irish Catholics
Religious views were influenced by the philosophy of rationalism. Diesm was a new form of spirituality based on reason and observation. Deists, like Newton and Locke, proposed that God could be discovered through the use of reason and the observation of nature.
Fun fact: Locke’s “A Letter Concerning Tolerance” (1690) proposes that religious beliefs should be private affairs; the government shouldn’t involve itself.

9. Literature—Drama
Drama was very popular during the Restoration and the eighteenth century.
Female actors were allowed on stage.
Comedies of manners reflected the life of the rich and leisured classes.
Heroic dramas entertained audiences with melodramatic devices—exaggerated dialogue, emotional outbursts, and stereotypical characters.
A characteristic of the literature written for privileged classes during this time was wit: emphasis on brilliance and cleverness.
Drama, in particular, experienced the most success during this period. Drama reflected the sophistication of Charles II’s court; it also reflected the life of the upper classes. Comedies of manners appealed to men and women of fashion. Women allowed on stage for the first time!
While writers still depended on patrons, the system eventually gave way to professional writers creating work for the middle class; men and women (both!) are reading.

10. Literature—Prose
Scientists developed a more precise style of writing than their Elizabethan predecessors. They
avoided ornate metaphors and allusions
used shorter, more concise sentences
Essayists and journalists developed a prose style pleasing to middle-class readers, rather than the aristocracy. They
addressed political and social matters and sought reform
established periodicals such as The Tatler and The Spectator
Journalism began during this period – advocated reforms.
Writers of the era proclaimed a need for traditional values through writing.
Richard Steele and Joseph Addison (“The Spectator” and “The Tatler”).
The dominant figure in the second half of the 18th century was Samuel Johnson. Johnson has been called the most learned man in his day and represents the transition between the Augustan period to the Romantic period. Johnson wrote the 1st dictionary of the English language.

11. Literature—Poetry Neoclassical poetry
appealed to the intellect and reason more than to emotions
was often witty and filled with classical allusions
had a public use—to celebrate, mourn, or ridicule
followed strict rules of form, rhyme, and meter
popular poetic forms: odes, elegies, and satires
Neoclassical tradition – forms imitated Latin classics.
Augustan poets known for preference to public themes
“True Ease in writing comes from Art, not Chance,
As those move easiest who have learn’d to dance.”
from An Essay on Criticism by Alexander Pope

12. Literature—Satire
Eighteenth-century English writers excelled in satire—a kind of writing that ridicules human weakness, vice, or folly in order to bring about social reform.
Alexander Pope gently satirized the immorality and bad taste of the leisured classes in works such as The Rape of the Lock.
Jonathan Swift harshly satirized the hypocrisy and smugness of human behavior in works such as Gulliver’s Travels.
Satirists attached the immorality and bad taste of the age.
Writers used satire to expose moral corruption and commercialism.
Satire becomes a dominant form in the works of English writers like Pope and Swift.
The Rape of the Lock still follows neoclassical form – modeled after classic epics, it satirizes an upper-class dispute (cutting off a lock of a woman’s hair) in mock-epic form, following on classic tropes of the epic form.

13. Literature—The Novel
The novel form came into being in the eighteenth century and was immediately popular. Eighteenth-century novels
described middle-class life and were often earthy and comical
explored the emotional lives of characters in detail
Epistolary novels, in which the story is told in a series of letters, were also popular.
At the end of the period, the literary focus shifted from elegance, taste, and reason toward emotional expression. (This is when private themes appear in poetry).
Early novels grew out of a variety of sources, primarily nonfiction: newspapers, diaries, epistolary correspondences, travel narratives.
Wanted intimate details, insight into characters’ hopes, fears, and motivation
Popular interest in other countries and cultures
“Novel” = new
Conveyed a sense of realism
Protagonist could be anyone – it didn’t matter if you were noble, heroic, godlike…
Plot follows (mis)adventures of the protagonist and characters they encounter
Critics complained that the novel lacked moral instruction – readers could end up mischievous like the protagonists!
Texts were read for entertainment and enjoyment
Some consider Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe as the first novel (epistolary). Other early novels include Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones, Samuel Richardson’s Clarissa, and Lawrence Sterne’s The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman.
Women writers enter the scene: Alphra Behn, Eliza Haywood, and Fanny Burney.

14. What Have You Learned?
1. After Oliver Cromwell died, _________ was restored to the throne in 1660.
a. Elizabeth b. Henry VIII c. Charles II
2. Members of non-Anglican Protestant churches were persecuted during the Restoration.
a. True b. False
3. The ______ was a new literary form developed during the eighteenth century. It explored the emotional lives of characters in detail.
a. letter b. novel c. sonnet

15. The End