1. Chapter 7 ]The Grounds for Arguments

2. Grounds Evidence, support, proof/foundation for claim
Basis for claims may be 1 of 2 types
Artistic Proof-reasoning, analysis, inspiration of advocate-personal knowledge
Primary Research-original, first hand findings
Interviews, surveys, questionnaires, field studies
Inartistic Proof-someone else’s words, ideas, numbers, examples used as proof
Secondary Research

3. Artistic Proof
Aristotle identified 3 types of artistic proof-3 ways we gain support for argument
Logos
Pathos
Ethos

4. Premise Premises are often used as grounds for a claim-as proof
A point accepted without the requirement of additional support-common knowledge
Premises used to support a claim are based on 2 types of knowledge
Personal Knowledge
Cultural Knowledge

5. Personal Knowledge Cultural Knowledge Type of artistic proof
What we know to be true because of first hand experience
Cultural Knowledge
Shared values and shared truths-common knowledge
Come from stories we tell and hear
Can be codified into the rules, principles, laws we follow
Reinforced through rituals-repeated behavior patterns
Ex. Graduation ceremony=reinforces value in discipline, education, etc.
Reinforced through symbols
Presumption-audience believes premises until convinced otherwise

6. Testing Premises
Evaluating the use of premises in support of claim requires considering 3 things
1. Is premise truly shared by audience-majority
2. Are there contradictory premises
3. Are there discrepancies between our public and private beliefs
Ex. We frown upon racism in US, but that doesn’t mean racist people don’t exist in US

7. Supporting a Premise/Claim/Proposition

8. Hard Evidence Soft Evidence Includes factual examples and statistics
Rests on opinion or inference.
Hypothetical illustrations, descriptions, explanations, analogies
Variety
Accuracy-credibility
Relevance

9. 1. Definitions Conveying info through giving meaning.
Focuses on addressing the meaning of a new or complex concept
Defining can take at least 5 forms
1-operational definition
2-definition by negation
3-definition by example
4-definition by synonym
5-definition by etymology

10. 2. Examples
Examples-illustrate, describe, or represent ideas+ aid understanding
-Brief example
-Extended example
-Hypothetical example

11. 3. Explanations
Explanation-involves providing reasons or causes and demonstrating relationships, & offering interpretation and analysis

12. 4. Testimony
Testimony-first hand findings, eye-witness accounts and opinions
Expert testimony-provided by professionals trained to evaluate or report on a given topic
Credibility important-competence
Ex. According to Dr. Lee Jones from Harvard Medical School, people with diabetes who exceed the consumption of 2 eggs per week increase their chances of heart disease. NOT REAL

13. -Lay testimony-evidence provided by non-
-Lay testimony-evidence provided by non- experts (eye- witness)-credibility is still important
According to one student who witnessed the shootings at Virginia Tech University, the shooter was …………(description)

14. 5. Statistics
quantified evidence-summarizes numerical data
percentage, average, frequency, mean, median, mode-
ex. Smoking increases one’s chances of getting lung cancer. 75% of people who get lung cancer are smokers.
present ethically
avoid cherry-picking
Underreporting
Overreporting
Is statistic coming from random sample

15. 6. Facts
Facts-documented occurrences that include events, dates, times, etc
-people usually require evidence or facts in order to accept something as true

16. Citing Sources Documenting Source Material-cite sources
-keep track of where you get everything (working bibliography)
-cite within and at the end of work (reference page) Pg. 140
MLA and ABA samples in back of book