Defining Development The science of human development …seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over.

Defining Development The science of human development …seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.

The Nature-Nurture Debate
Influence of genes we inherit Nurture Environmental influences that affect development Environmental influences include such things as: health and diet of the embryo's mother family school community society

Understanding How and Why
Five basic steps of the scientific method Begin with curiosity and pose a question. Develop a hypothesis. Test the hypothesis. Draw conclusions. Report the results. On the basis of theory, prior research, or a personal observation, pose a question. Develop a hypothesis, a specific prediction, that can be tested. Test the hypothesis. Design and conduct research to gather empirical evidence (data). Draw conclusions. Use the evidence to support or refute the hypothesis. Report the results. Share the data and conclusions, as well as alternative explanation. Built into the scientific method—in questions, hypotheses, tests, and replication— is a passion for possibilities, especially unexpected ones.

A View from Science Sudden Infant Death (SIDS)
Ask question: Why do babies die? Develop hypothesis: Sleeping pattern matters. Test hypothesis: Use back position for newborn sleeping. Analyze data and draw conclusion: Back-sleeping protected against SIDS. Publish reports: Beal, 1988 Replicate and confirm: Engelberts & de Jonge,1990 SIDS: The term used to describe an infant's unexpected death; when a seemingly healthy baby, usually between 2 and 6 months old, suddenly stops breathing and dies unexpectedly while asleep. Detailed U.S. data on SIDS are available only for the last 25 years, but as best we know the rate was steady at about 1 baby in every 700 throughout most of the twentieth century and has been even lower after 2008, at about 1 baby in 2,000.

The Life-Span Perspective
An approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood.

Development is multidirectional. Over time, human characteristics change in every direction. Several major theorists describe discontinuous stages of development: Freud, Erickson, Piaget. Others view development as a continuous process. There is simple growth, radical transformation, improvement, and decline as well as stability, stages, and continuity—day to day, year to year, and generation to generation

Critical and Sensitive Periods
Critical period Time when certain things must occur for normal development Sensitive period Time when a particular development occurs most easily

Development is multicontextual. Ecological Systems (Bronfenbrenner) Each person is affected by many social contexts and interpersonal interactions. Three nested levels surround individuals and affect them. Approach later named bioecological theory.

Ecological Systems Microsystems Exosystems Macrosystems Chronosystem Mesosystem Microsystems (elements of the person's immediate surroundings, such as family and peer group) Exosystems (local institutions such as school and church) Macrosystems (the larger social setting, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes) Chronosystem (literally, “time system”), which affects the other three systems Mesosystem, consisting of the connections among the other systems

The Ecological Model Each person is affected by interactions among overlapping systems, which provide the context of development. Microsystems—family, peer groups, classroom, neighborhood, house of worship—intimately shape human development. Surrounding and supporting the microsystems are the exosystems—external networks, such as local educational, medical, employment, and communications systems—that influence the microsystems. Influencing both of these systems is the macrosystem, which includes cultural patterns, political philosophies, economic policies, and teachers coordinate to educate a child. system, the chronosystem, to emphasize the importance of historical time.

Development is multicontextual. Historical context Cohort Demographic characteristics Political issues All persons born within a few years of one another are said to be a cohort, a group defined by the shared age of its members.

Guess First order from top to bottom, were 1971, 1931, 2011, 1951, and 1991, you are excellent at detecting cohort influences. for Social Security numbers, so the names of those who did not get a Social Security number are omitted.

Development is multicontextual. Socioeconomic context Socioeconomic status (SES): Income, wealth, occupation, education, and neighborhood. Socioeconomic status (SES) A person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence. Many religious groups provide food for low-income families. Lisa Arsa is fortunate to have found this Seventh-Day Adventist food pantry for herself and her son, Isaac. Unfortunately, the food donated to low-income families is usually high in salt, as income falls.

Development is multicontextual. Poverty Traditionally relates to food costs and family size Revised definition of poverty under way that takes into account housing, medical care, and various subsidies

Development is multicultural. Culture System of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior Social construction Based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Culture: Patterns of behavior that are passed from one generation to the next. Vygotsky described the interaction between culture and education. Many age-related terms, such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen, are social constructions.

Development is multicultural. Culture Set of ideas that people share. Ethnic group Consists of people whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion Each family, community, and college has a particular culture, and these cultures may clash.

Development is multicultural. Deficit or differences? Humans tend to believe that they, their nation, and their culture are a little better than others (difference-equals-deficit error). Belief becomes destructive if it reduces respect and appreciation for others. Differences may be an asset or a deficit.

Development is multicultural. Learning within a culture: Vygotsky Described interaction between culture and education Proposed guided participation is a universal process used by mentors to teach cultural knowledge, skills, and habits Barbara Rogoff studied cultural transmission using a Vygotsky perspective.

Development is multicultural. Ethnic and Racial Groups Ethnicity Social construction, affected by social context, not a direct outcome of biology Race Social construction that continues to lead to racism. Ethnic group share certain attributes, almost always including ancestral heritage and usually national origin, religion, and language. Race is A group of people regarded as distinct from other groups on the basis of appearance, typically skin color. Social scientists think race is a misleading concept, as biological differences are not signified by outward appearance. In this book, we refer to ethnicity more often than to race, but we use race or color when the original data are reported that way.

Overlap—But How Much? Ethnicity, culture, and race are three distinct concepts, but they often—though not always—overlap. Which set of circles do you think is more accurate?

Stop and consider! The United States is the only nation that separates the racial category from the ethnic one. Color terms exaggerate minor differences.

Development is multidisciplinary. Genes alone do not determine development. Environmental forces affect expression of genetic inheritance. An Epigenetic Model of Development Notice that there are as many arrows going down as going up, at all levels. Although development begins with genes at conception, it requires that all four factors interact. Epigenetic refers to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's, or a species', genetic inheritance.

Development is multidisciplinary. Multidisciplinary research on depression Depression is genetic and neurological. Depression is developmental. Depression is environmentally influenced. Overall, at least 12 factors are linked to depression. Each factor is related to research from a different discipline. Low serotonin in the brain, as a result of an allele of the gene for serotonin transport (neuroscience) Childhood caregiver depression, especially postpartum depression with exclusive mother-care (psychopathology) Low exposure to daylight, as in winter in higher latitudes (biology) Malnutrition, particularly low hemoglobin (nutrition) Lack of close friends, especially when entering a new culture, school, or neighborhood (anthropology) Diseases, including Parkinson's and AIDS, and drugs to treat diseases (medicine) Disruptive event, such as breakup with a romantic partner (sociology) Death of mother before age 10 (psychology) Absence of father during childhood—especially because of divorce, less so because of death or migration ( family studies) Family history of eating disorders (not necessarily of the depressed person) (genetics) Poverty, especially in a nation where some people are very wealthy (economics) lLow cognitive skills, including illiteracy and lack of exposure to other ideas (education)

Development is plastic. Dynamic systems approach Suggests human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between body and mind and between the individual and every aspect of the environment Highlights how developmental change has always occurred

Development is plastic. Developmental sensitivity Human traits can be molded, yet people maintain a certain durability of identity. Three factors improve predictions Nature and nurture always interact. Certain periods of life are sensitive periods. People are differentially sensitive.

Development is plastic. Developmental sensitivity More than a dozen brain areas are more reactive to stress when a person has only the short allele of 5-HTTLPR. From a study of healthy college women who were paid to undergo an experiment involving 12 episodes without shocks, 13 with moderate shocks, and 13 with stronger (painful but not extreme) shocks. Uncertainty increased stress: The women did not know exactly when or how strong the shocks would be. People with only the short version of 5-HTTLPR were much more anxious overall, with more areas of their brains activated (shown here in red), comparedto those with the long version.

Development Is plastic. Developmental sensitivity Teenagers with the short version who attended the seminars were less likely to have early sex or to use drugs than those who also had the short gene but not the family training. The sensitivity provided by nature (the small difference in the code for 5-HTTLPR) allowed the special nurture (the seminars) to have an impact. The risk score for these boys was a simple 0 to 3, with 1 point for each of the following: drank alcohol, smoked marijuana, had sex. As shown, most had done none of these at age 11, and, by age 14, most had done one (usually drunk beer). However, some of those at genetic risk had done all three, and many had done two. For them, and only them, the seven-sessioninterventionmade a difference. Boys with the long version of 5‑HTTLPR developed just as well whether they were in the intervention group or not.

Theories of Human Development
Developmental theory Systematic statement of principles and generalizations Framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older

Psychoanalytic theory Theory Proposes that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior Freud (1856–1939) First psychoanalyst Proposes five psychosexual stages during which sensual satisfaction is linked to developmental needs and conflicts. Suggests early conflict resolution determines personality patterns Development in the first six years occurs in three stages, each characterized by sexual pleasure centered on a particular part of the body. See Table 1.4 for details. of each stage.

Psychoanalytic theory Epigenetic Theory Stresses that genes and biological impulses are powerfully influenced by the social environment Erik Erikson (1902–1994) Described eight developmental stages, each characterized by a challenging developmental crisis Proposed five psychosocial stages build on Freud's theory, but added three adult stages See Table 1.4 for details. of each stage.

Behaviorism Learning theory Focuses on observable behavior Describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned Conditioning Proposes that learning takes place through processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli Development in the first six years occurs in three stages, each characterized by sexual pleasure centered on a particular part of the body. See Table 1.4 for details. of each stage.

Behaviorism Classical conditioning Demonstrates that behaviors can be learned by making an association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus Also called respondent conditioning Ivan Pavlov ( ) Received the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his digestive processes research. Resulted in discovery of classical conditioning Process in which a person or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus, gradually reacting to the neutral stimulus with the same response as to the meaningful one.

Behaviorism John Watson ( ) American psychologist One of earliest proponent of behaviorism and learning theory Argued that scientists should examine only what they could observe and measure Proposed anything can be learned with focus on behavior

Behaviorism Operant conditioning Proposes that reinforcement or punishment may be used to either increase or decrease the probability that a behavior will occur again in the future Also called instrumental conditioning B.F. Skinner ( ) Agreed with Watson that psychology should focus on the scientific study of behavior Was best known for experiments with rats, pigeons and his own daughter Most influential North American behaviorist Learning process in which a particular action is followed either by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated).

Psychoanalytic Theory vs. Behaviorism

Social learning theory Extension of behaviorism that emphasizes that other people influence each person's behavior. Proposes that even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people; modeling Albert Bandura (b. 1925) First described social learning theory Emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior Proposes a multidimensional approach, including differential sensitivity

Cognitive theory Proposes thoughts and expectations profoundly affect actions, attitudes, beliefs and assumption Focuses on changes in how people think over time Jean Piaget (1896–1980) Maintained that cognitive development occurs in four major age-related periods, or stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational Intellectual advancement occurs lifelong because humans seek cognitive equilibrium

Piaget's Periods of Cognitive Development

Cognitive theory Assimilation Experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas Accommodation Old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate, new experiences A new experience can jarring and incomprehensible. The resulting experience is one of cognitive disequilibrium, an imbalance that initially creates confusion. Disequilibrium leads to cognitive growth because it forces people to adapt their old concepts. Piaget describes two types of adaptation: assimilation and accommodation.

Humanism Stresses the potential of all human beings for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) One of founders of humanism Arranged shared human needs in hierarchy Contended that everyone must satisfy each lower level before moving higher

Maslow's hierarchy is like a ladder: Once a person stands firmly on a higher rung, the lower rungs are no longer needed. Thus, someone who has arrived at step 4 might devalue safety (step 2) and be willing to risk personal safety to gain respect.

Using the Scientific Method
Scientific observation Requires researcher to record behavior systematically and objectively May be conducted in a naturalistic setting or a laboratory

Experiment Establishes causal relationships among variables Variables Independent variable Dependent variable Groups Experimental group Comparison group Independent variable- the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable. Dependent variable- the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. Experimental group- gets a particular treatment (the independent variable). Comparison group (also called a control group), which does not get the treatment.

Statistical Measures Often Used in Research Analyses
Effect size Significance Cost-benefit analysis Odds ratio Factor analysis Meta analysis See Table 1.7 for additional information.

How to Conduct an Experiment
The basic sequence diagrammed here applies to all experiments. Many additional features, especially the statistical measures listed in Table 1.7 and various ways of reducing experimenter bias, affect whether publication occurs. (Scientific journals reject reports of experiments that were not rigorous in method and analysis.)

Survey Includes information is collected from a large number of people by interview, questionnaire, or some other means Challenges Acquiring valid survey data is not easy. Some people lie, some change their minds. Survey answers are influenced by the wording and the sequence of the questions.

Studying Development over the Life Span
Basic research designs Cross-sectional research Longitudinal research Cross-sequential research Cross-sectional Research Groups of people of one age are compared with people of another age. Longitudinal Research Collecting data repeatedly on the same individuals as they age. Cross-sequential Research Study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and follow them over the years (a longitudinal approach).

Cautions from Science Correlation and causation
A correlation exists between two variables if one variable is more (or less) likely to occur when the other does Positive correlation Negative correlation Zero correlation Correlation is not causation! A correlation is positive if both variables tend to increase together or decrease together. A correlation is negative if one variable tends to increase while the other decreases. A correlation is zero if no connection is evident.

Ethics Each academic discipline and professional society involved in the study of human development has a code of ethics. Ensure that participation is voluntary, confidential, and harmless. Ensure that participants understand the research procedures and any risks involved. Promote research accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness. Study and report data on many issues that are crucial for the optimal development of all people. Informed consent: participants must understand the research procedures and any risks involved.

Defining Development The science of human development …seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over.

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Defining Development The science of human development …seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over.

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