1. Perception
We have previously examined the sensory processes by which stimuli are encoded.
Now we will examine the ultimate purpose of sensory information
PERCEPTION - the conscious representation of the external environment.

2. Perceptual Organization
Some of the best examples that perception involves organization of sensory input was provided by the Gestalt Psychologists.
Gestalt psychologists hypothesized that “the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”
They were interested in showing the global nature of our perceptions

3. Gestalt Grouping Principles
Gestalt theorists argued that our perceptual systems automatically organized sensory input based on certain rules.
Proximity
Similarity
Closure
Good Continuation
Common Movement
Good Form

4. Figure and Ground
Gestalt Psychologists also thought that an important part of our perception was the organization of a scene in to its:
Figure - the object of interest
Ground - the background

5. Depth Perception
One of our more important perceptual abilities involves seeing in three-dimensions
Depth perception is difficult because we only have access to two-dimensional images
How do we see a 3-D world using only the 2-D retinal images?

6. Depth Perception Cues
Cue - stimulus characteristics that influence our perceptions
We are able to see in 3-D because the visual system can utilize depth cues that appear in the retinal images.

7. Types of Depth Cues
Depth cues are usually divided into categories, we will consider two types of depth cues:
Monocular - depth cues that appear in the image in either the left or right eye
Binocular - depth cues that involve comparing the left and right eye images
Might also talk about convergence here

8. Monocular Depth Cues Occlusion Relative image size linear perspective
Texture gradient
Position relative to Horizon
Differential lighting of surfaces (Shading)

9. Relationship Between Perceived size and Perceived Depth
To perceive the size of objects accurately we must also perceive their distance accurately.
Thus, many visual illusions occur simply because a particular image lacks sufficient depth cues.
Retina
Pupil
Image A B
Key point here: The retinal image is the same for the near and distant objects.
For this to happen the distant object must be larger.
This figure shows that image size depends upon both object size and distance

10. Ames Room
The Ames room is designed so that the monocular depth cues give the illusion that the two people are equally far away

11. Other Size-Distance Illusions
In each of these examples, the top and bottom lines are actually the same length.
In each case the top line looks longer.
Why?
(a) Müller-Lyer illusion
The horizontal lines in each illusion are the same but are misperceived because the monocular depth cues lead the perceiver to an incorrect interpretation of depth
(b) Ponzo illusion

12. Muller-Lyer Illusion
Perceptual psychologists have hypothesized that the top horizontal line looks longer because it also looks farther away.
Specifically, the inward pointing arrows signify that the horizontal line is closest to you, and the outward pointing arrows signify the opposite case.

13. Ponzo Illusion
Converging lines indicate that top line is farther away than bottom line

14. Binocular Depth Cues
Monocular depth cues allow us to see in 3-D with the view of only one eye, but our best depth perception occurs if we look through both eyes.
This is because our right and left eyes see a slightly different view of the world.
This difference between the image in the two eyes is know as Binocular Disparity.

15. Binocular Stereopsis
Binocular Stereopsis - the perception of depth based on retinal disparity
Psychologists typically study binocular stereopsis with the use of stereograms.
Stereogram - stimulus consisting of a left eye and a right eye image. When these two images are fused, the Illusion of depth is created.

16. Stereogram Original artwork by James Tittle !
This demo is taken from Gray 3e and can be viewed in a way that produces
a black square BEHIND the white
The viewer must cross eyes so that the left eye is looking at the right square and the right looking at the left.
Try ‘fixating’ on an imaginary point in front of the viewing screen at which point you will see three squares- left center and right. The center one will be the stereo image

17. Autostereogream
Another way to create the illusion of depth through binocular stereopsis is with an Autostereogram.
An autostereogram is formed by superimposing two repeating patterns
The two patterns are slightly offset, and when viewed properly, this offset is seen as a binocular disparity.

18. Autostereogram
This iamage should be viewed by crossing the eyes until the two target circles at the top are seen as three. What you will see is a checkerboard pattern.

19. Perceptual Constancy
When viewing conditions change, the retinal image changes even if the objects being viewed remain constant.
Example: as a person walks away from you their retinal image decreases in size.
important function of the perceptual system is to represent constancy in our environment even when the retinal image varies.

20. Size Constancy
Cylinders at positions A and B are the same size even though their image sizes differ
The depth cues such as linear perspective and texture help the visual system judge the size accurately
Point A
Point B

21. Shape Constancy
It is hard to tell if the figure on the upper right is a trapezoid or a square slanted backward.
If we add texture, the texture gradient helps us see that it is actually a square.

22. Attention: Combining the Elements of Perception
We can not be consciously aware of all the perceptual information available to us at any one time.
Thus, we have the ability to enhance some aspects of our perception while ignoring others.
This selective process is know as attention.

23. Preattentive processing
Some aspects of our perception are under our conscious attentive control.
Example: In a large crowd, we can concentrate on listening to some people and ignoring others.
However, other perceptual processes occur automatically and we can not consciously control them.

24. Feature Integration
Feature detection is an example of a preattentive perceptual process, and can be done in parallel
Feature Integration, seems to require attention and most be performed serially.

25. X V Feature Integration Stage 1 Feature- detection files Stage 2
Line slant
Color
Etc.
Feature
integration
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stimuli
Conscious
perception
of stimulus
(a red X) V X

26. Feature Pop Out
The slanted line amongst vertical lines Pops Out, but the cross amongst horizontal and vertical lines does not pop out.
(a)
(b)

27. The Stroop Effect: Learned Automaticity
Some abilities which once required attention can become automatic through practice.
An example of such learned automaticity is found in the Stroop Intereference Effect.
Stroop found that the act of reading could interfere with your ability to perform simple perceptual distinctions like naming colors.

28. Stroop Effect
In Stroop’s experiment, observers were asked to look at a word and name the color of the ink used to write that word.
Stroop found that if the meaning of the word was different than the color of the ink, observers were less successful at naming colors.
GREEN
RED
BLUE
BLACK
TRUCK
TOP
COUCH
HAND
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)