1. Women in STEM: progress stalled or being eroded?
dr. Jolanta Reingarde,
European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE)
Women‘s Economic Empowerment: Let‘s act together European Parliament, March 8-9

2. Human resources in science and technology, 2015 (% of labour force)
STEM is one of the fastest growing sectors in the EU. Empirical studies show that countries with a higher proportion of engineering graduates tend to grow faster than countries with a higher proportion of graduates in other disciplines (Murphy, Schleifer, and Vishny, 1991). In addition, future technical change is likely to be linked to abilities and tasks related to STEM disciplines. STEM skills are therefore by many seen as indispensable to promote job rich and knowledge intensive growth after the crisis.
In the EU on average over 30% of human resources are engaged in science and technology:
successfully completed education at the third level
not formally qualified as above, but employed in a S&T occupation where the above qualifications are normally required.

3. Rising demand, major shortages
Demand for STEM professionals and associate professionals is expected to grow by around 8% by 2025, much higher than the average 3% growth forecast for all occupations (Cedefop)
Major skills shortages of STEM and ICT professionals are already observed across all EU countries and expected to exacerbate with future demographic developments (i.e. large retiring foreseen)
In spite of a series of measures, women participation in STEM studies, in particular in engineering, remains low in most Member States
An insufficient supply of STEM skills and a low participation rate of women in STEM studies are perceived as barriers, which could impede a job rich recovery and growth of economy
Demand for STEM professionals and associate professionals is expected to grow by 8 % between 2013 and 2025, whilst the average growth forecast for all occupations is 3 %.
Employment forecast in STEM-related sectors shows a similar trend: it is estimated to rise by 8 % in computing and by 15 % in professional services. Over 1 mln additional jobs are expected to be created until 2025, 2.4 mln workers will replace retiring workers. One common trend across the EU is the overall aging of STEM professionals. This leads to a major replacement demand for STEM professionals currently and in the coming years if the development in demand continues as now and even more so if demand increases further.
Concerns about the supply of STEM skills rely on two basic facts: the proportion of students going into STEM is not increasing at the European level and the underrepresentation of women persists.

4. Distribution of tertiary education students by field and gender, EU-28, 2013 (%)
Despite the large proportion of women gaining higher education qualifications, inequalities and gender gaps persist in terms of subjects and study fields chosen. According to data from Eurostat, in 2013 women mainly graduated in health and welfare, humanities and arts as well as social sciences, business and law. In contrast, men often graduated in engineering, manufacturing and construction-related fields, followed by technology, science and maths. Although the total number of students in STEM rose between 2003 and 2013, the gap between women and men remained constant throughout this period (So far, these trends have been mitigated by the expansion of higher education, which has seen since the mid-2000s an increase in the absolute numbers of STEM university graduates in the European Union. The number of STEM VET graduates has nevertheless decreased and this is a predominant trend at the national level).
Overall, the trend in women’s employment situation between has been towards greater segregation – with 5 % decrease in male-dominated occupations. As regards men, the trend is opposite - we see an increase in men’s employment in female-dominated occupations and a decline in both mixed- and male-dominated occupations.

5. Women/men graduates in STEM fields (of total female/male graduates all fields), 2003-2012
Of all graduates, graduates in STEM-related subjects account for 13 % of female graduates as compared with a share of 38 % among male graduates (2012). The proportion of women among STEM VET graduates is even lower than for university graduates. The common and persistent trend- continuously low engagement of women in STEM throughout the years.
Gender equality in science, technology, and innovation is not simply a matter of fairness. A more equitable gender balance is believed to enhance the recruitment of the most talented, irrespective of gender, tapping a partially unexploited resource. Gender equality is a way to promote scientific and technological excellence not just improving opportunities for women.  

6. Share of women and men among tertiary graduates in STEM, 2014
Although women have made important advances in their participation in higher education, among all STEM graduates, the share of women at the EU level remains persistently low. Although, country differences are large: close to 40% - in Romania and as low as 15% - in Spain.

7. Largest STEM disciplines dominated by men
Computing and engineering – the largest STEM disciplines are heavily male dominated, with more than 80% male graduates in both disciplines in 2012.

8. Share of women employed in ICT, 2008-2015
Employment in STEM is male-dominated. Here we see the share of women employed in ICT. The largest reduction in ICT employment was observed in Estonia, with a drop from close to 45% in 2008 to less than 35% in Large reductions were also observed in NL – which already had among the lowest share in , SK, CZ, FR, AT, ES, PL, PT, LV, BG. Few increases noted during this period: MT (might be driven by overall increasing women employment), LU, SI, EL, RO.
Another important fact is that among engineering and computing technicians, women are represented in the public services by 18% pp more than in the private sector.

9. Employment status of women STEM graduates
STEM provides better employment opportunities for women STEM graduates if compared with the general employment rate of all women.

10. Barriers to the participation of women in STEM
Stereotypes, social norms and cultural practices
Negative image of STEM
Welfare policies
STEM fields not considered as family-friendly
Family background and the absence of women role models
Male dominated culture
Biased recruitment, appraisal and promotion procedures
Limited access to networks, information, funding or institutional support, biased research evaluation procedures, low recognition in the field
Persisting gender segregation across study fields is the result of a mix of social, cultural, economic and educational institutional factors. To target policies we need to understand those barriers and their interaction with gender inequality.
The literature highlights the role of gender socialization of boys and girls to explain their uneven distribution across study fields. Family plays a key role as they often bring up their children to conform to traditional gender roles, while the education system, teachers and peers, tend to reinforce these stereotypes and notions of differences in women’s talents and orientations compared to men. In this way they give support to gendered choices with regard to studies and career prospects. Research links segregation across scientific fields at the university level to segregation downstream across choice of study fields at the secondary school level. This early segregation hinders girls’ and women’s later study and career opportunities.
In the current composition, STEM subjects and occupation might not be attractive to women. In addition to technical and practical knowledge, STEM professionals are also increasingly required to have highly developed ‘soft’ skills such as foreign languages, management, communication, problem-solving and project management (Cedefop). STE(A)M – more attractive to women.
If one takes preferences as reflective of actual options as well as of gender and social norms, then welfare policies may be a major factor shaping preferences and behaviour. An individual’s preferences may be shaped by limited childcare, lack of flexible working opportunities or discrimination against mothers. These conditions may lead women to accept moves to lower status and often segregated jobs at the point at which they have children.
Suter (2006) points out that women prefer careers that do not conflict with family responsibilities and are useful in childrearing, such as education, psychology, or medicine. Therefore, it seems that women do not consider STEM fields to be family-friendly.
Family background and the absence of female role models can also influence women’s participation in STEM careers.
It is not only the gender of the worker, but also gender characteristics of the occupation that may lead to different working experiences. An overall male-dominated culture of STEM have an impact on women’s choices. It can generate an unpleasant environment for women, discouraging their participation or even supporting their exit. McIlwee and Robinson (1992) argue “there is a distinct, male-centered ‘culture of engineering’ that generates an unfavorable climate for women and thus makes their access to this profession more difficult, particularly to the most prestigious positions in research and development” (OECD, 2006). A report by UNESCO (2007) states that sexual harassment or discriminatory practices that take place in this environment affect women in the workplace and discourage them (Equal Opportunities Commission, 2004).
A part of this work organisation and culture are biased recruitment and hiring procedures, restrictive regulations, biased promotion practices, lack of access to networks, stereotypes, work-life balance issues, and evaluation practices. All of these barriers affect women’s access to STEM fields, hiring and promotion opportunities, retention, and career success.

11. Male-dominated occupations: workforce characteristics
Men’s share of jobs increases in older age groups
Women with children are under-represented in male-dominated professions; the opposite is true for men
The minority of women in STEM have higher levels of education than men
Women and men pass through different stages of the life-course differently. In professional, white-collar occupations, men’s share of jobs increases in older age groups.
As individual moves through the life course, gendered realities increasingly exclude women from the professional, white-collar occupations associated with higher pay but longer hours, in favour of more female-dominated, less skilled occupations with shorter hours. Given that this tendency is observed in 2005 and 2010, this suggests that the observation reflects more than a single cohort or is simply the effect of the economic crisis. This suggests that during their careers men not only integrate faster into the professions than women do but also sustain and increase their presence over the life-course, while women’s presence declines, associated with career breaks for childcare and eldercare. The gender gap opens with age in the highest paying professions.
Household circumstances constrain women’s employment options to a far greater extent than those for men. Women with children in the household are under-represented in male-dominated occupations. For men with children under 15 there is a clear tendency to be over-represented in male-dominated occupations. Men with children are most over-represented in the corporate managers category, perhaps demonstrating a pressure on men to become breadwinners in households with children, while the pressures on women with children is towards part-time work and occupations with norms of more family-friendly hours.
The minority of women in STEM are more likely than men to have higher levels of education. The data show, that highly educated men have access to a wider variety of occupations, but for highly educated women their choice of occupations is more constrained.

12. Male-dominated occupations: working conditions
76 % of women employees working part-time can be found in female-dominated occupations
Men’s average working hours are longer than women’s in every occupation, but men work even longer hours in male-dominated occupations
Men working short hours in male-dominated occupations desire to work much longer hours
While women tend to be more exposed than men to psychological risks, this is especially the case in male-dominated occupations
76 % of women employees working part-time can be found in female-dominated occupations. This can be largely attributable to the gendering of the occupational category more than to the gender of the individual employee.
Male-part-time work has its largest share of the employed in two blue-collar occupations: Cleaners and maintenance workers and Labourers in construction and industry. Male part-time work seems to be a function of specific conditions within certain occupation rather than a function of the gendering of occupations.
Men’s average working hours are longer than women’s in every occupation, but men work even longer hours in male-dominated occupations. Moreover, men working short hours in male-dominated occupations desire to work much longer hours, perhaps reflecting the fact that part-time work in these occupations is very rare and probably undesirable.
While women tend to be more exposed than men to psychological risks, this is especially the case in male-dominated occupations

13. Effect of narrowing the gender gap in STEM on GDP per capita
 Improvement in GDP per capita by 0.7 to 0.9%
 Improvement in GDP by €130 to €180 billion
 Improvement in GDP per capita by 2.2 to 3.0%
 Improvement in GDP by €610 to €820 billion
A larger pool of STEM workforce is expected to be more productive, to boost the potential productive capacity of the economy and generate an increase in GDP per capita.
Increasing the participation of women in STEM subjects will have a strong positive GDP impact at EU level. Closing the gender gap in STEM would contribute to an increase in EU GDP per capita by 0.7 to 0.9% in By 2050, the increase is between 2.2% and 3.0%. In monetary terms, closing the STEM gap leads to an improvement in GDP by €610 - €820 billion in 2050.
Improving gender equality in STEM education can improve long-term competitiveness of the EU economy.
The study forecasts that women will become more productive due to higher rates of STEM qualifications, contributing to smart growth envisaged in the Europe 2020 strategy. The competitiveness of the EU economy is also expected to gain from the increased employment of women in STEM fields. By 2050, exports are estimated to increase by about 0.7% whereas imports are forecast to decline by up to 1.2%, leading to an improved balance of trade.

14. Effect of narrowing the gender gap in STEM on employment
Closing the gender gap in STEM could lead to an additional 1.2 million jobs
Closing gender gaps in STEM education would have a positive impact on employment. Total EU employment would rise by 850,000 to 1,200,000 by These jobs are forecasted mostly in the long term as employment rates will rise only after more women studying STEM finish their education.
The new jobs are likely to be highly productive because women graduating from STEM often progress into high value added positions in sectors such as information and communication or financial and business services. Higher productivity of STEM jobs is likely to result into higher wages (European Parliament, 2015). Remarkably, the study shows a closure of the gender wage gap by There is an increase in the number of women graduating in STEM subjects and, because of their higher educational attainment and choice of career in higher-wage sectors, women experience a gradual increase in average earnings, reaching parity with wages for men by 2050.
Slow progress scenario: Closure of gap in computing by 2-14pp; closure of gap in engineering by 4-12 pp
Rapid progress scenario: Closure of gap in computing by 5-14pp; closure of gap in engineering by 9-12 pp
Summary: Increase in women graduates from STEM - increases potential output in sectors

15. Conclusions
Gender segregation in education and the labour market is associated with creating and perpetuating gender inequalities in and beyond the labour market
Segregation narrows employment choices and reinforces gender stereotypes
The objective of gender equality policy should not necessarily be a homogenisation of the labour market by gender, although gendered roles shall be equally valued and remunerated
The analysis of changes over time show that the overall level and pattern of change in gendered occupational segregation has changed remarkably little over time , despite so many EU policies being aimed at reducing gender segregation and gender inequality.

16. Conclusions
Gender inequalities are dragging down women’s economic opportunities and affecting the entire EU economy
Leading to shortfall in terms of achieving inclusive and sustainable growth
To reach the goal of smart, sustainable and inclusive economic growth, the EU must improve existing and introduce further gender equality measures

17. Thank you!
Gedimino pr. 16, LT Vilnius, Lithuania